Monograph: Ginseng, Panax
Help on accessing alternative formats, such as Portable document format (PDF), Microsoft word and PowerPoint (PPT) files, can be obtained in the alternate format help section.
Date:
2018-08-28
See Appendix 1 for examples of appropriate dosage preparations and frequencies of use, according to cited references. The purpose of Appendix 1 is to provide guidance to industry.
NHPID name
Panax ginseng ( Germplasm Resources Information Network Taxonomy )Proper name(s)
Panax ginseng ( Unavailable )Common name(s)
- Asian ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Chinese ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Hong shen ( Unavailable )
- Korean ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Korean red ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Oriental ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Panax ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Red ginseng ( Unavailable )
- Ren shen ( Unavailable )
Source material
Route Of administration
OralDosage form(s)
- The acceptable pharmaceutical dosage forms include, but are not limited to capsules, chewables (e.g. gummies, tablets), liquids, powders, strips or tablets.
- This monograph is not intended to include foods or food-like dosage forms such as bars, chewing gums or beverages.
Use(s) or purpose(s)
Statement(s) to the effect of:
- (Used in Herbal Medicine as) supportive therapy for the promotion of healthy glucose levels. (Vuksan et al. 2008, Reay et al. 2006, Sievenpiper et al. 2006, Williamson 2003, WHO 1999, Sotaniemi et al. 1995)
- Helps support cognition.
- (Used in Herbal Medicine to) help(s) enhance physical capacity/performance (in cases of physical stress).
- Used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) to reinforce qi, benefit the spleen and lung, relieve symptoms of thirst due to impairment of body fluids and internal heat. (PRC 2005, Bensky and Gamble 1993)
- (Used in Herbal Medicine to) help(s) support cognitive function and/or reduce mental fatigue (in cases of mental stress). (Reay et al. 2006, Reay et al. 2005, Sunram-Lea et al. 2005, Kennedy et al. 2004, ESCOP 2003, Kennedy et al. 2002, Scholey and Kennedy 2002, Kennedy et al. 2001, Sorensen and Sonne 1996, Bradley 1992, D'Angelo et al. 1986, BHP 1983)
- Used in Herbal Medicine as an adaptogen to help increase energy and resistance to stress (e.g. in case of mental and physical fatigue related to stress).
Dose(s)
Adults:
Dose(s):
1 Day per day
Duration of use
Consult a health care practitioner/health care provider/health care professional/doctor/physician for use beyond 3 months. (Mills and Bone 2005, Blumenthal et al. 2000, McGuffin et al. 1997, Bradley 1992)Risk information
Statement(s) to the effect of:
Caution(s) and Warning(s):- Consult a health care practitioner/health care provider/health care professional/ doctor/ physician prior to use if you are pregnant, breastfeeding or have diabetes. (Seely et al. 2008, Chin 1991)
- Consult a health care practitioner/health care provider/health care professional/doctor/ physician prior to use if you are taking antidepressant medication, blood thinners or digoxin. (Brinker 2010, Lee et al. 2008a, Dasgupta and Reyes 2005, Janetzki and Morreale 1997)
Non-medicinal ingredients
Must be chosen from the current Natural health products ingredients database and must meet the limitations outlined in the database.Specifications
- The finished product specifications must be established in accordance with the requirements described in the NHPD Quality of natural health products guide.
- The medicinal ingredient must comply with the requirements outlined in the Natural health products ingredient database (NHPID).
- The medicinal ingredient may comply with the specifications outlined in the following pharmacopoeial monographs: 'Ginseng' iin the British Pharmacopoeia, 'Ginseng' in the European Pharmacopoeia as well as 'Asian Ginseng', 'Powdered Asian Ginseng', 'Powdered Asian Ginseng Extract' or 'Asian Ginseng Tablets' in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.
References cited
-
Allen JD, McLung J, Nelson AG, Welsch M. 1998. Ginseng supplementation does not enhance healthy young adults' peak aerobic exercise performance. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 17(5):462-466
-
Bensky D, Gamble A. Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica. Revised Edition. Seattle (WA): Eastland Press, Incorporated; 1993.
-
BHP 1983: British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. Cowling (GB): British Herbal Medical Association; 1983.
-
Blumenthal M, Goldberg A, Brinckmann J, editors. Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E Monographs. Boston (MA): Integrative Medicine Communications; 2000.
-
BP 2008: British Pharmacopoeia, Volume 1. Londron (UK): British Pharmacopoeia Commission. The Stationary Office.
-
Bradley PR, editor. 1992. British Herbal Compendium: A Handbook of Scientific Information on Widely Used Plant Drugs, Volume 1. Bournemouth (GB): British Herbal Medicine Association.
-
Brinker F. Online Updates and Additions to Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 3rd edition. Sandy (OR): Eclectic Medical Publications; 2010. [Accessed 2015 June 4]. Available from: http://www.eclecticherb.com/emp/updatesHCDI.html
-
Chin RKH. 1991. Ginseng and common pregnancy disorders. Asia-Oceania Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 17(4):379-380
-
Coon JT, Ernst E. 2002. Panax ginseng: a systematic review of adverse effects and drug interactions. Drug Safety 25(5):323-344
-
D'Angelo L, Grimaldi R, Caravaggi M, Marcoli M, Perucca E, Lecchini S, Frigo GM, Crema A. 1986. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study on the effect of a standardized ginseng extract on psychomotor performance in healthy volunteers. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 16(1):15-22
-
Dasgupta A, Reyes MA. 2005. Effect of Brazillian, Indian, Siberian, Asian, and North American ginseng on serum digoxin measurement by immunoassays and binding of digoxin-like immunoreactive components of ginseng with Fab Fragment of antidigoxin antibody (Digiband). American Journal of Clinical Pathology 124(2):229-236
-
de Andrade E, de Masquita AA, de Almeida Claro J, de Andrade PM, Ortiz V, Paranhos M, Srougi M. 2007. Study of the efficacy of Korean Red Ginseng in the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Asian Journal of Andrology 9(2):241-244
-
Ellis JM, Reddy P. 2002. Effects of Panax ginseng on quality of life. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 36(3):375-379
-
Engels HJ, Fahlman MM, Wirth JC. 2003. Effects of ginseng on secretory IgA, performance, and recovery from interval exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 35(4):690-696
-
Engels HJ, Kolokouri I, Cieslak TJ, Wirth JC. 2001. Effects of ginseng supplementation on supramaximal exercise performance and short-term recovery. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 15(3):290-295
-
Engels HJ, Said JM, Wirth JC. 1996. Failure of chronic ginseng supplementation to affect work performance and energy metabolism in healthy adult females. Nutrition Research 6(8):1295-1305
-
Engels HJ, Wirth JC. 1997. No ergogenic effects of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) during graded maximal aerobic exercise. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97(10):1110-1115
-
ESCOP 2003: ESCOP Monographs: The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products, 2nd edition. Exeter (UK): European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy and Thieme; 2003.
-
European Pharmacopoeia, 6th edition. Strasbourg (France): Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and HealthCare of the Council of Europe (EDQM).; 2008
-
Gonzalez-Seijo JC, Ramos YM, Lastra I. 1995. Manic episode and ginseng: report of a possible case. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 15(6):447-448
-
Gross D, Krieger D, Efrat R, Dayan. 1995. Ginseng extract G115 for the treatment of chronic respiratory diseases. Schweiz Zschr Ganzheits Medizin 1:29-33
-
Heo JH, Lee ST, Chu K, Oh MJ, Park HJ, Shim JY, Kim M. 2008. An open-label trial of Korean red ginseng as an adjuvant treatment for cognitive impairment in patients with Alzeimer's disease. European Journal of Neurology 15(8):865-868
-
Hoffmann D. 2003. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Rochester (VT): Healing Arts Press.
-
Janetzki K, Morreale AP. 1997. Probable interaction between warfarin and ginseng. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 54(6):692-693
-
Jones BD, Runikis AM. 1987. Interaction of ginseng with phenelzine. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 7(3):201-202
-
Kennedy DO, Haskell CF, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB. 2004. Improved cognitive performance in human volunteers following administration of guarana (Paullinia cupana) extract: comparison and interaction with Panax ginseng. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 79(3):401-411
-
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Wesnes KA. 2001. Dose dependent changes in cognitive performance and mood following acute administration of Ginseng to healthy young volunteers. Nutritional Neuroscience 4(4):295-310
-
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Wesnes KA. 2002. Modulation of cognition and mood following administration of single doses of Ginkgo biloba, ginseng, and a ginkgo/ginseng combination to healthy young adults. Physiology & Behavior 75(5):739-751
-
Kim SH, Park KS, Chang MJ, Sung JH. 2005. Effects of panax ginseng extract on exercise-induced oxidative stress. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 45(2):178-182
-
Lee SH, Ahn YM, Ahn SY, Doo HK, Lee BC. 2008a. Interaction between warfarin and Panax ginseng in ischemic stroke patients. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 14(6):715-721
-
Lee ST, Chu K, Sim JY, Heo JH, Kim M. 2008b. Panax ginseng enhances cognitive performance in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders 22(3):222-226
-
McGuffin M, Hobbs C, Upton R, Goldberg A, editors. 1997. American Herbal Products Association's Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press.
-
McGuffin M, Kartesz JT, Leung AY, Tucker AO, editors. 2000. Herbs of Commerce, 2nd edition. Austin(TX): American Herbal Products Association.
-
Mills S, Bone K. 2005. The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety. St. Louis (MO): Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.
-
Petkov VD, Mosharrof AH. 1987. Effects of standardized ginseng extract on learning, memory and physical capabilities. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 15(1-2):19-29
-
PPRC 1997: Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, Volume I. Beijing (CN): The Pharmacopoeia Commission of PRC
-
PPRC 2005: Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, Volume I. Beijing (CN): Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission.
-
Reay JL, Kennedy DO, Scholey AB. 2006. Effects of Panax ginseng, consumed with and without glucose, on blood glucose levels and cognitive performance during sustained 'mentally demanding' tasks. Journal of Psychopharmacology 20(6):771-781
-
Scaglione F, Cattaneo G, Alessandria M, Cogo R. 1996. Efficacy and safety of the standardized ginseng extract G115 for potentiating vaccination against common cold and/or influenza syndrome. Drugs Under Experimental and Clinical Research 22(2):65-72
-
Scaglione F, Cogo R, Cocuzza C, Arcidiacono M, Beretta A. 1994. Immunomodulatory effects of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (G115) on alveolar macrophages from patients suffering with chronic bronchitis. International Journal of Immunotherapy 10(1):21-24
-
Scaglione F, Ferrara F, Dugnani S, Falchi M, Santoro G, Fraschini F. 1990. Immunomodulatory effects of two extracts of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. Drugs Under Experimental and Clinical Research 16(10):537-542
-
Scaglione F, Weiser K, Alessandria M. 2001. Effects of the standardised ginseng extract G115 in patients with chronic bronchitis. Clinical Drug Investigation 21(1):41-45
-
Schepdael PV. 1993. Les effets du ginseng G115 sur la capacité physique de sportifs d'endurance. Acta Therapeutica 19(4):337-347
-
Scholey AB, Kennedy DO. 2002. Acute, dose-dependent cognitive effects of Ginkgo biloba, Panax ginseng and their combination in healthy young volunteers: differential interactions with cognitive demand. Human Psychopharmacology 17(1):35-44
-
Seely D, Dugoua JJ, Perri D, Mills E, Koren G. 2008. Safety and efficacy of Panax ginseng during pregnancy and lactation. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 15(1):e87-e94
-
Shader RI, Greenblatt DJ. 1985. Phenelzine and the dream machine - ramblings and reflections. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 5(2):65
-
Shader RI, Greenblatt DJ. 1988. Bees, ginseng and MAOIs revisited. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 8(4):235
-
Siegel RK. 1979. Ginseng abuse syndrome. Problems with the panacea. The Journal of the American Medical Association 241(15):1614-1615
-
Sievenpiper JL, Sung MK, Buono MD, Seung-Lee K, Nam KY, Arnason JT, Leiter LA, Vuksan V. 2006. Korean red ginseng rootlets decrease acute postprandial glycemia: results from sequential preparation- and dose-finding studies. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 25(2):100-107
-
Soldati F, Sticher O. 1980. HPLC separation and quantitative determination of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium and from ginseng drug preparations. 2e communication. Planta Medica 39(4):348-357
-
Sorensen H, Sonne J. 1996. A double-masked study of the effects of ginseng on cognitive functions. Current Therapeutic Research 57(12):959-968
-
Sotaniemi EA, Haapakoski E, Rautio A. 1995. Ginseng therapy in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 18(10):1373-1375
-
Sünram-Lea SI, Birchall RJ, Wesnes KA, Petrini O. 2005. The effect of acute administration of 400 mg of Panax ginseng on cognitive performance and mood in healthy young volunteers. Current Topics in Nutraceutical Research 3(1):65-74
-
USDA 2008: ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville (MD). [Accessed 2008-01-21]. Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
-
USP 32 : United States Pharmacopeial Convention. 2009. United States Pharmacopeia and the National Formulary (USP 32 - NF 27). Rockville (MD): The United States Pharmacopeial Convention.
-
Vuksan V, Sung MK, Sievenpiper JL, Stavro PM, Jenkins AL, Buono MD, Lee KS, Leiter LA, Nam KY, Arnason JT, Choi M, Naeem A. 2008. Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng) improves glucose and insulin regulation in well-controlled, type 2 diabetes: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of efficacy and safety. Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases 18(1):46-56
-
WHO 1999: World Health Organization. WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, Volume 1. Geneva (CH): World Health Organization; 1999.
-
Williamson EM. Potter's Herbal Cyclopaedia: The Authoritative Reference work on Plants with a Known Medical Use. Saffron Walden (UK): The C.W. Daniel Company Limited; 2003.
-
Wren RC. 1907. Potter's Cyclopedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations. London (GB): Potter and Clark.
References reviewed
-
Awang DVC, Fugh-Berman A. 2002. Herbal interactions with cardiovascular drugs. The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing 16(4):64-70
-
Bahrke MS, Morgan WP. 1994. Evaluation of the ergogenic properties of ginseng. Sports Medicine 18(4):229-248
-
Bahrke MS, Morgan WP. 2000. Evaluation of the ergogenic properties of ginseng: an update. Sports Medicine 29(2):113-133
-
Bahrke MS. 1997. Comments on 'manic episode and ginseng: report of a possible case'. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 17(2):140-141
-
Bartram T. Bartram's Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine: The Definitive Guide to the Herbal Treatments of Diseases. New York (NY): Marlowe & Company; 1998.
-
BHP 1996: British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. Bournemouth (UK): British Herbal Medical Association; 1996.
-
Blumenthal M, Hall T, Goldberg A, Kunz T, Kinda K, editors. 2003. The ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs. Austin (TX): American Botanical Council
-
Bove M. 2001. An Encyclopedia of Natural Healing for Children and Infants, 2nd edition. Toronto (ON): McGraw-Hill.
-
Bradley PR, editor. British Herbal Compendium: A Handbook of Scientific Information on Widely Used Plant Drugs, Volume 2. Bournemouth (UK): British Herbal Medicine Association; 2006.
-
Bucci LR. 2000. Selected herbs and human exercise performance. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72(Suppl 2):624S-636S
-
Buettner C, Yeh GY, Phillips RS, Mittleman MA, Kaptchuk TJ. 2006. Systematic review of the effects of ginseng on cardiovascular risk factors. Complementary and Alternative Medicine 40(1):83-95
-
Cardinal BJ, Engels HJ. 2001. Ginseng does not enhance psychological well-being in healthy, young adults: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101(6):655-660
-
Chen K. 1981. The effect and abuse syndrome of ginseng. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1(1):69-72
-
Cho YK, Sung H, Lee HJ, Joo CH, Cho GJ. 2001. Long-term intake of Korean red ginseng in HIV-1-infected patients: development of resistance mutation to zidovudine is delayed. International Immunopharmacology 1(7):1295-1305
-
Choi HK, Choi YJ, Choi YD, Rha KH, Kim JH, Kim DK. 2002. SS-penogram: a new diagnostic test for erectile dysfunction. Yonsei Medical Journal 43(1):1-6
-
Choi HK, Seong DH, Rha KH. 1995. Clinical efficacy of Korean red ginseng for erectile dysfunction. International Journal of Impotence Research 7(3):181-186
-
Chosidow O, Dega H, Peytavin G. 1996. Ginseng as cause of Stevens-Johnson syndrome? The Lancet 348(9022):267
-
Coleman CI, Hebert JH, Reddy P. 2003. The effects of Panax ginseng on quality of life. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 28(1):5-15
-
Collomp K, Wright F, Collomp R, Shamari K, Bozzolan F, Préfaut C. 1996. Ginseng et exercice supramaximal. Science & Sports 11(4):250-251
-
Covington MB. 2001. Traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of diabetes. Diabetes Spectrum 14(3):154-159
-
Dega H, Laporte JL, Francès C, Herson S, Chosidow O. 1996. Ginseng as a cause for Stevens-Johnson syndrome? The Lancet 347(9011):1344
-
Dukes MNG. 1978. Ginseng and mastalgia. British Medical Journal 1(6127):1621
-
Ellingwood F. 1983. American Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacognosy. Sandy (OR): Eclectic Medical Publications [Reprint of 1919 original].
-
Engelberg D, McCutcheon A. 2001. A case of ginseng-incduced mania. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 21(5):535-537
-
Faleni R, Soldati F. 1996. Ginseng as cause of Stevens-Johnson syndrome? The Lancet 348(9022):267
-
Felter HW, Lloyd JU. King's American Dispensatory, Volume 1, 18th edition. Sandy (OR): Eclectic Medical Publications; 1983 [Reprint of 1898 original].
-
Felter HW. The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Sandy (OR): Eclectic Medical Publications; 1983 [Reprint of 1922 original].
-
Forgo I, Kayasseh L, Staub JJ. 1981. [Effect of a standardized ginseng extract on general well-being, reaction time, lung function and gonadal hormones]. Einfluss eines standardisierten Ginseng-Extraktes auf das Allgemeinbefinden, die Reaktionsfahigkeit, Lungenfunktion und die gonadalen Hormone. Die Medizinische Welt 32(19):751-756. [in German]
-
Forgo I, Kirchdorfer AM. 1981. [On the question of influencing the performance of top sportmen by means of biologically active substances]. Ginseng steigert die köperliche Leistung. Arztliche Praxis 33(44):1784-1786. [in German]
-
Forgo I. 1982. The effect of different ginsenoside concentration on physical work capacity. Notabene Medici 12:721
-
Forgo I. 1983. [Effect of drugs on physical and the hormonal system of athletes]. Wirkung von Pharmaka auf korperliche Leistung und Hormonsystem von Sportlern. 2. Mitteilung. Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 125(38):822-824. [in German]
-
Forgo I. 1985. The duration of effect of the standardized ginseng extract G115 in healthy competitive athletes. Notabene Medici 15:636
-
Gaffney B, Hügel H, Rich P. The effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus and Panax ginseng on steroidal hormone indices of stress and lymphocyte subset numbers in endurance athletes. Life Sciences. 2001;70(4):431-442.
-
Gillis CN. 1997. Panax ginseng pharmacology: a nitric oxide link? Biochemical Pharmacology 54(1):1-8
-
Grieve M. 1971. A Modern Herbal, Volume 1. New York (NY): Dover Publications [Reprint of 1931 Harcourt, Brace & Company publication].
-
Gross D, Shenkman Z, Bleiberg B, Dayan M, Gittelson M, Efrat R. 2002. Ginseng improves pulmonary functions and exercise capacity in patients with COPD. Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease 57(5-6):242-246
-
Hallstrom C, Fulder S, Carruthers M. 1982. Effects of ginseng on the performance of nurses on night duty. Comparative Medicine East and West 6(4):277-282
-
HC 2008: Health Canada CADRMP Online Query [online]. Ottawa (ON): Health Canada. Available from: http://205.193.93.51/CADRMP/index_e.jsp [Accessed 21 August 2008]
-
Hong B, Ji YH, Hong JH, Nam KY, Ahn TY. 2002. A double-blind crossover study evaluating the efficacy of Korean red ginseng in patients with erectile dysfunction: a prelimary report. The Journal of Urology 168(5):2070-2073
-
Izzo AA, Di Carlo G, Borrelli F, Ernst E. 2005. Cardiovascular pharmacotherapy and herbal medicines: the risk of drug interaction. International Journal of Cardiology 98(1):1-14
-
Jang DJ, Lee MS, Shin BC, Lee YC, Ernst E. 2008. Red ginseng for treating erectile dysfunction: a systematic review. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 66(4):444-450
-
Jiang X, Blair EYL, McLachlan AJ. 2006. Investigation of the effects of herbal medicines on warfarin response in healthy subjects: a population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamix modeling approach. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 46(11):1370-1378
-
Jiang X, Williams KM, Liauw WS, Ammit AJ, Roufogalis BD, Duke CC, Day RO, McLachlan AJ. 2004. Effect of St John's wort and ginseng on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 57(5):592-599.
-
Kaneko H, Nakanishi K, Kuwashima K, Ikeda K. 2000. Effects of the long-term administration of red ginseng on working stress and changes of physiological parameters of workers. A study at a care hospital for the aged (ROUJIN BYOUIN). Therapeutic Research 21(5):1451-1463. [abstract]
-
Kaneko H, Nakanishi K. 2004. Proof of the mysterious efficacy of ginseng: basic and clinical trials: clinical effects of medical ginseng, Korean red ginseng: specifically, its anti-stress action for prevention of disease. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences 95(2):158-162
-
Kang HY, Kim SH, Lee WJ, Byrne HK. 2002. Effects of ginseng ingestion on growth hormone, testosterone, cortisol, and insulin-like growth factor 1 responses to acute resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 16(2):179-183
-
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Drewery L, Marsh VR, Moore B, Ashton H. 2003. Electroencephalograph effects of single doses of Ginkgo biloba and Panax ginseng in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 75(3):701-709
-
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB. 2003. Ginseng: potential for the enhancement of cognitive performance and mood. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 75(3):687-700
-
Kim JH, Park CY, Lee SJ. 2006. Effects of sun ginseng on subjective quality of life in cancer patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 31(4):331-334
-
Klepser TB, Klepser ME. 1999. Unsafe and potentially safe herbal therapies. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 56(2):125-138.
-
Kolokouri I, Engels HJ, Cieslack T, Wirth JC. 1999. Effect of chronic ginseng supplementation on short duration, supramaximal exercise test performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 31(Suppl 5):S117
-
Kulaputana O, Thanakomsirichot S, Anomasiri W. 2007. Ginseng supplementation does not change lactate threshold and physical performances in physically active Thai men. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 90(6):1172-1179
-
Kwak HE, Kim SS, Kim YC, Jung SR, Kang HY, Lee CD. 2007. Effects of red ginseng intake on muscle injury due to eccentric exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 39(Suppl 5):S361
-
Lee FC, Ko JH, Park JK, Lee JS. 1987. Effects of Panax ginseng on blood alcohol clearance in man. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology 14(6):543-546
-
Lee HY, Kim CS. 1986. [Clinical investigation of Insam (Korean ginseng) on sexual potency]. Korean Journal of Urology 27(2):235-240. [in Korean]
-
Lee HY, Paick JS, Lee SW. 1988. [Efficacy of ginseng extract on patients with oligospermia]. Korean Journal of Urology 29(8):950-960. [in Korean]
-
Lust J. The Herb Book. New York (NY): Bantam Books Incorporated, published by arrangement with Benedict Lust Publications; 1987.
-
Ma SW, Benzie IF, Chu TT, Fok BS, Tomlinson B, Critchley LA. 2008. Effect of Panax ginseng supplementation on biomarkers of glucose tolerance, antioxidant status and oxidative stress in type 2 diabetic subjects: results of a placebo-controlled human intervention trial. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 10(11):1125-1127
-
Mills E, Dugoua J, Perri D, Koren G. Herbal Medicines in Pregnancy and Lactation: An Evidence-Based Approach. London (UK): Taylor and Francis Medical; 2006.
-
Mills S, Bone K. 2000. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy. Toronto (ON): Churchill Livingstone.
-
Moerman DE . 1998. Native American Ethnobotany. Portland (OR): Timber Press.
-
Murphy LL, Lee TJ. 2002. Ginseng, sex behavior, and nitric oxide. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 962:372-377
-
Nocerino E, Amato M, Izzo AA. 2000. The aphrodisiac and adaptogenic properties of ginseng. Fitoterapia 71(Suppl 1):S1-S5
-
Palmer BV, Montgomery ACV, Monteiro JCMP. 1978. Gin seng and mastalgia. British Medical Journal 1(6122):1284
-
Persson J, Bringlov E, Nilsson LG, Nyberg L. 2004. The memory-enhancing effects of ginseng and ginkgo biloba in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 172(4):430-434
-
Ravens JA, Edwards D. 2001. Roots: evolutionary origins and biogeochemical significance. Journal of Experimental Botany 52(90001):381-401
-
Reay JL, Kennedy DO, Scholey AB. 2006. The glycaemic effects of single doses of Panax ginseng in young healthy volunteers. British Journal of Nutrition 96(4):639-642
-
Reay JL, Scholey AB, Milne A, Fenwick J, Kennedy DO. 2008. Panax ginseng has no effect on indices of glucose regulation following acute or chronic ingestion in healthy volunteers. British Journal of Nutrition 19:1-6
-
Ryu SJ, Chien YY. 1995. Ginseng-associated cerebral arteritis. Neurology 45:829-830
-
Salvati G, Genovesi G, Marcellini L, Paolini P, De Nuccio I, Pepe M, Re M. 1996. Effects of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer saponins on male fertility. Panminerva Medica 38(4):249-254
-
Schilcher H. Phytotherapy in Paediatrics: Handbook for Physicians and Pharmacists. Stuttgart (D): Medpharm Scientific Publishers; 1997.
-
Shou-zhong Y, translator. The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica - A translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing. Boulder (CO): Blue Poppy Press; 2004.
-
Sievenpiper JL, Arnason JT, Leiter LA, Vuksan V. 2003. Null and opposing effects of asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A Meyer) on acute glycemia: results of two acute dose escalation studies. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 22(6):524-532
-
Sievenpiper JL, Arnason JT, Leiter LA, Vuksan V. 2004. Decreasing, null and increasing effects of eight popular types of ginseng on acute postprandial glycemic indices in healthy humans: the role of ginsenosides. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 23(3):248-258
-
Soldati F. 1988. Immunological studies of ginseng. Proceedings of the 5th International Ginseng Symposium, Seoul: 108-114
-
Srisurapanon S, Rungroeng K, Apibal S, Cherdrugsi P, Siripol R, Vanich-Angkul V, Timvipark C. 1997. The effect of standardized ginseng extract on peripheral blood leukocytes and lymphocyte subsets: a preliminary study in young healthy adults. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 80(Suppl 1):S81-S85
-
Sticher O, Soldati F 1979. [HPLC separation and quantitative determination of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium and from Ginseng drug preparations] HPLC Trennung and quantitative Bestimmung der Ginsenoside von Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium and von ginseng-spezialitaten. Planta Medica 36(1):30-42 [in German]
-
Sung H, Kang SM, Lee MS, Kim TG, Cho YK. 2005. Korean red ginseng slows depletion of CD4 T cells in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 12(4):497-501
-
Tetsutani T, Yamamura M, Yamaguchi T, Onoyama O, Kono M. 2000. Can red ginseng control blood glucose in diabetic patients. The Ginseng Review 28:44-47
-
Teves M, Wright J, Welch M, Patton J, Mello R, Rock PB, Knapik JJ, Vogel JA, der Marderosian A. 1983. Effects of ginseng on repeated bouts of exhaustive exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 15(2):162
-
Tilgner S. Herbal Medicine from the Heart of the Earth. Creswell (OR): Wise Acre Press; 1999.
-
Tode T, Kikuchi Y, Hirata J, Kita T, Nakata H, Nagata I. 1999. Effect of Korean red ginseng on psychological functions in patients with severe climacteric syndromes. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 67(3):169-174
-
Vogel VJ. 1970. American Indian Medicine. Norman (OK): The University of Oklahoma Press
-
Vogler BK, Pittler MH, Ernst E. 1999. The efficacy of ginseng. A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 55(8):567-575
-
von Ardenne M, Klemm W. 1987. Measurements of the increase in the difference between the arterial and venous Hb-O2 saturation obtained with daily administration of 200 mg standardized ginseng extract G115 for four weeks. Panminerva Medica 29:143-150
-
Weiss RF. 1998. Herbal Medicine. Gothenburg (SE), Beaconsfield (UK): AB Arcanum, Beaconsfield Publishers Ltd
-
WHO 2002: World Health Organization (WHO) Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, Volume 2. Geneva (CHE): World Health Organization.
-
WHO 2007: World Health Organization (WHO) Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, Volume 3. Geneva (CHE): World Health Organization.
-
Wiersema J, León B. 1999. World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press LLC.
-
Williamson EM, Evans FJ, Wren RC. Potter's New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations. Saffron Walden (GB): C.W. Daniel Company Limited; 1988.
-
Wiseman N and Ye F. A Practical Dictionary of Chinese Medicine. 2nd edition. Brookline (MA): Paradigm Publications; 1999.
-
Yeh G, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ, Phillips RS. 2003. Systematic review of herbs and dietary supplements for glycemic control in diabetes. Diabetes Care 26(4):1277-1294
-
Yeung H. Handbook of Chinese Herbal Formulas. Rosemeade (CA): Institute of Chinese Medicine; 1998.
-
Ziemba AW, Chmura J, Kaciuba-Uscilko H, Nazar K, Wisnik P, Gawronski W. 1999. Ginseng treatment improves psychomotor performance at rest and during graded exercise in young athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition 9(4):371-377
Appendix 1: Examples of appropriate dosage preparations, frequencies of use and directions for use
Root and/or rootlet:
- 9 g dried root, per day (Heo et al. 2008)
- 4.5 g dried root, per day (Lee et al. 2008b)
- 2 g dried rootlet, 3 times per day (Vuksan et al. 2008)
- 2-6 g dried rootlet, per day (Sievenpiper et al. 2006)
- 1.8-9 g dried root, per day (Mills and Bone 2005)
- 2 g powdered dried root, 2 times per day (PPRC 2005)
- 3-9 g steamed dried root, per day (PPRC 2005)
- 0.5-2 g dried root, per day (ESCOP 2003)
- 1-2 g dried root, per day (Blumenthal et al. 2000)
- 0.6-2 g dried root, per day (Bradley 1992)
- 1-2 g dried root, 3 times per day (BHP 1983)
Decoction:
- 1.8-9 g dried root, per day (Mills and Bone 2005)
- 3-9 g dried root, per day (PPRC 2005)
- 1-2 g dried root, per day (Blumenthal et al. 2000)
- 0.5-2 g dried root, per day (WHO 1999)
- 0.6-2 g dried root, per day (Bradley 1992)
- 1-2 g dried root, 3 times per day (BHP 1983)
Fluid extract:
1-2 g dried equivalent, per day (1:1, 1-2 ml) (Blumenthal et al. 2000)
Tincture:
- 0.75-3 g dried equivalent, per day (1:2, 1.5-6 ml) (Mills and Bone 2005)
- 0.2-0.4 g dried equivalent, 3 times per day (1:5, 60% alcohol, 1-2 ml) (Hoffmann 2003)
- 1-2 g dried equivalent, per day (1:5, 5-10 ml) (Blumenthal et al. 2000)
Standardized extracts containing 4-7% total ginsenosides:
- 100 mg, 2 times per day (3-7:1, 40% ethanol) (Blumenthal et al. 2000; Scaglione et al. 2001; Scaglione et al. 1994; Scaglione et al. 1990; Gross et al. 1995; D'Angelo et al. 1986)
- 200 mg, per day (3-7:1, 40% ethanol) (Reay et al. 2006; Reay et al. 2005; Kennedy et al. 2004; Kennedy et al. 2001; Allen et al. 1998; Scaglione et al. 1996; Forgo 1983)
- 200 mg, per day (5:1) (Engels and Wirth 1997; Engels et al. 1996)
- 400 mg, per day (5:1) (Sünram-Lea et al. 2005; Reay et al. 2005; Engels et al. 2003; Kenney et al. 2002; Scholey and Kennedy 2002; Engels et al. 2001; Kennedy et al. 2001; Engels and Wirth 1997)
- 600 mg, per day (3-7:1, 40% ethanol) (Kennedy et al. 2001)