Produits d'Huiles fixes - Orale

Si vous avez besoin d'aide pour accéder aux formats de rechange, tels que Portable Document Format (PDF), Microsoft Word et PowerPoint (PPT), visitez la section d'aide sur les formats de rechange.

La présente monographie vise à servir de guide à l'industrie pour la préparation de demandes de licence de mise en marché (DLMM) et d'étiquettes dans le but d'obtenir une autorisation de mise en marché d'un produit de santé naturel. Elle ne vise pas à être une étude approfondie de l'ingrédient médicinal.

Notes

Date

28 mars 2024

Nom(s) propre(s), Nom(s) commun(s) et Information(s) d'origine

Tableau 1 : Nom(s) propre(s), Nom(s) commun(s) et Information(s) d'origine
Nom(s) propre(s) Nom(s) commun(s) Information(s) d'origine
Matière(s) d'origine Partie(s)
Borago officinalis Huile de bourrache Borago officinalis Graine
Camelina sativa Huile de lin bâtard Camelina sativa Graine
Cannabis sativa Huile de graines de chanvre Cannabis sativa Graine
Carthamus tinctorius Huile de carthame Carthamus tinctorius Graine
Cocos nucifera Huile de noix de coco Cocos nucifera Albumen (graine d'angiosperme)
Huile de foie de morue Huile de foie de morue Gadidae1 Foie
Cucurbita pepo Huile de graines de citrouille Cucurbita pepo Graine
Huile de canola
  • Huile de canola
  • Huile de colza
  • Huile de graines de canola
  • Brassica napus
  • Brassica juncea
  • Brassica rapa
Graine
Huile de poisson2 Huile de poisson
  • Ammodytidae
  • Carangidae
  • Clupeidae
  • Engraulidae
  • Gadidae3
  • Osmeridae
  • Salmonidae
  • Scombridae
En entier
Helianthus annuus Huile de tournesol Helianthus annuus Graine
Hippophae rhamnoides Huile de fruit d'argousier Hippophae rhamnoides Fruit
Huile de graines d'argousier Hippophae rhamnoides Graine
Huile de krill Huile de krill
  • Euphasia pacifica
  • Euphausia superba
En entier
Linum usitatissimum
  • Huile de lin
  • Huile de graines de lin
Linum usitatissimum Graine
Oenothera biennis
  • Huile d'onagre
  • Huile de primerose
Oenothera biennis Graine
Olea europaea Huile d'olive Olea europaea Fruit
Prunus dulcis
  • Huile d'amande
  • Huile d'amandes douces
Prunus dulcis Graine
Ribes nigrum Huile de pépins de cassis Ribes nigrum Graine
Salvia hispanica Huile de graines de chia Salvia hispanica Graine
Schizochytrium spp. Huile de schizochytrium Schizochytrium spp. En entier
Huile de phoque Huile de phoque
  • Cystophora cristata
  • Erignathus barbatus
  • Halichoerus grypus
  • Pagophilus groenlandicus
  • Phoca vitulina
  • Pusa hispida
Petit lard
Huile de calmar Huile de calmar
  • Todarodes pacificus
  • Docidicus gigas
  • Illex argentinus
  • Illex illecebrosus
En entier
Triticum aestivum Huile de germe de blé Triticum aestivum Germe (graine)
Vitis vinifera Huile de pépins de raisin Vitis vinifera Graine

Références: Noms propres: BDIPSN 2023; Noms communs: BDIPSN 2023; Informations d'origine: FCC 2023, ITIS 2023, USP-NF 2023, Ph.Eur 2023, Linnamaa et al. 2010, Yurko-Mauro et al. 2010, Dubois et al. 2007, Callaway et al. 2005, Hoffmann 2003, Yang et al. 1999.

1Huile de foie de morue : Les noms communs des espèces et non pas la famille peuvent être listés sur l'étiquette.

2Huile de poisson : Correspond à l'huile du corps entier d'un ou plus d'espèces des familles listées dans le Tableau 1 dans sa forme naturelle, et/ou sous forme triglycéride/triacylglycérol concentrée et/ou sous forme estérifiée concentrée (BP 2023; Ph.Eur. 2023; Froese and Pauly 2022). Les noms communs des espèces et non pas les familles peuvent être listés sur l'étiquette.

3Huile de poisson : Pour les huiles de poisson incluant des espèces de Gadidae comme matière d'origine, le contenu en vitamine A et D doit être testé afin d'assurer que les doses maximales quotidiennes rencontrent la monographie des Suppléments de multivitamines/minéraux pour chaque groupe d'âge.

Voie d'administration

Orale

Forme(s) posologique(s)

Cette monographie exclut les aliments et les formes posologiques semblables aux aliments tel qu'indiqué dans le document de référence Compendium des monographies.

Les formes posologiques acceptables pour la voie d'administration orale sont indiquées dans la liste déroulante dans le formulaire web de demande de licence de mise en marché pour les demandes officinales.

Usage(s) ou fin(s) et Dose(s)

Sous-population(s)

Adulte 18 ans et plus

Quantité(s)

Consulter les tableaux 2 et 3.

Tableau 2 : Usages ou fins, doses quotidiennes associées et composantes d'activité (AL - Acide linoléique; AAL - Acide alpha-linolénique; AEP - Acide eicosapentaénoïque; ADH - Acide docosahexaénoïque; ADP - Acide docosapentaénoïque; AGL-Acide gamma-linolénique; AO - Acide oléique)
Ingrédients médicinaux Méthodes de préparation Usages ou fins Doses quotidiennes1 Composantes d'activité

Huile de bourrache

Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'acides gras essentiels pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acides gras oméga-6 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide linoléique (LA) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
Huile : 3,7-5 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3

Huile : jusqu'à 5 g
et
AL, AAL, AGL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*

AL, AAL, AGL, AO
Huile de canola Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3

Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*

AL, AAL, AO
Huile de caméline Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO
Huile de chanvre Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 15 g
et AL, AAL, AGL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AGL, AO
Huile de carthame Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO
Huile de noix de coco Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés par) les radicaux libres
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés par) les radicaux libres et/ou
  • Selon le tableau 3
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO
Huile de foie de morue Huile fixe normalisée Selon la monographie de l'huile de foie de morue Huile : jusqu'à 4 g et Quantités de AEP, ADH, Vitamine A et Vitamine D selon la monographie de l'huile de foie de morue AEP, ADH, Vitamine A, Vitamine D
Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 4 g et Quantités minimales de AEP et/ou ADH selon le tableau 3* et Quantités maximales de AEP, ADH, Vitamine A et Vitamine D selon la monographie de l'huile de foie de morue AEP, ADH, Vitamine A, Vitamine D
Huile de graines de citrouille Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AO
Huile de poisson Huile fixe normalisée Selon la monographie de l'huile de poisson Selon la monographie de l'huile de poisson AEP, ADH
Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 10 g et
AEP et/ou ADH selon le tableau 3*
AEP, ADH
Huile de tournesol Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés par) les radicaux libres et/ou
  • Selon le tableau 3
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL et/ou AO selon le tableau* 3*
AL, AO
Huile de graine d'argousier Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 5 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 5 g et AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3* AL, AAL, AO
Huile de fruit d'argousier Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 5 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 5 g et AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3* AL, AAL, AO
Huile de krill Huile fixe normalisée
  • Source d'AEP (acide éicosapentaénoïque) et d'ADH (acide docosahexaénoïque) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acides gras oméga-3 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide gras omega-3 tel qu'AEP et ADH
Huile : jusqu'à 4,1 g et
AEP+ADH : 100 mg ou plus
AEP, ADH
Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 4,1 g et
AEP et/ou ADH selon le tableau 3*
AEP, ADH
Huile de lin Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'acide gras essentiel (acide alpha-linolénique (AAL)) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acides gras oméga-3 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide alpha-linolénique (AAL) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
Huile : 0,23-32 g S/O
  • Source d'acide gras essentiel (acide linoléique (AL)) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acides gras essentiels (acide alpha-linolénique (AAL) et acide linoléique (AL)) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acides gras oméga-6 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide linoléique (AL) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
Huile : 7,7-32 g
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 32 g
et/ou
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO
Huile d'onagre Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'acides gras essentiels pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acides gras oméga-6 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide linoléique (AL) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
Huile : 1,3-6 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 6 g
et
AL, AAL, AGL et/ou OA selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AGL, AO
Huile d'olive Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés par) les radicaux libres
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés par) les radicaux libres et/ou
  • Selon le tableau 3
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g
et
AL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AO
Huile d'amande Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO
Huile de pépins de cassis Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 10,5 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 10,5 g et AL, AAL, AGL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3* AL, AAL, AGL, AO
Huile de chia Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 4,5 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 4,5 g
et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO
Huile de Schizochytrium Huile fixe normalisée Aide à soutenir la santé cognitive et/ou les fonctions cérébrales ADH : 200-2000 mg AEP, ADH
Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 5 g
et
AEP et/ou ADH selon le tableau 3*
Huile de phoque Huile fixe normalisée Selon la monographie de l'huile de phoque Selon la monographie de l'huile de phoque AEP, ADH, ADP
Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 10 g
et
AEP, ADH et/ou ADP selon le tableau 3*
Huile de calmar Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 5 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 5 g
et
AEP et/ou ADH selon le tableau 3*
AEP, ADH
Huile de germe de blé Huile fixe non-normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants
  • Source d'antioxydants/Fournis des antioxydants qui aident à combattre/à protéger (les cellules) contre/à réduire (les effets oxydatifs des/les dommages oxydatifs causés par/les dommages cellulaires causés par) les radicaux libres et/ou
  • Selon le tableau 3
Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3* AL, AAL, AO
Huile de pépins de raisin Huile fixe non-normalisée S/O Huile : jusqu'à 15 g S/O
Huile fixe normalisée Selon le tableau 3 Huile : jusqu'à 15 g et
AL, AAL et/ou AO selon le tableau 3*
AL, AAL, AO

Références : DPSNSO 2023; Zielinska et al. 2017; Quinn et al. 2010; Yang et al. 1999; Leventhal et al. 1994.

1La quantité des huiles fixes peut aussi être représentée en quantité volumétrique (c.-à-d. ml) en se basant sur les informations de densités listées en Annexe 1.

*La quantité totale d'un acide gras spécifique (par ex., AL) dans un produit doit rencontrer la dose minimale listée dans le Tableau 3 pour appuyer une allégation de ce tableau. Il n'est pas obligatoire que chaque huile rencontre la dose minimale d'un acide gras spécifique si la quantité totale d'un acide gras dans le produit fini la rencontre.

Tableau 3 : Usages ou fins selon les composantes d'activité - acides gras
Composantes d'activité : acides gras1 Usage(s) ou fin(s) Dose quotidienne minimale2
AL
  • Source d'acide linoléique (AL) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide gras oméga-6 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide gras essentiel pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
850 mg
AAL
  • Source d'acide alpha-linolénique (AAL) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide gras oméga-3 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
  • Source d'acide gras essentiel pour le maintien d'une bonne santé
80 mg
AL + AAL Source d'acides gras essentiels pour le maintien d'une bonne santé 850 mg d'AL
et
80 mg d'AAL
AEP + ADH
ou
AEP + ADP
ou
ADH + ADP
ou
AEP + ADH + ADP
Source d'acides gras oméga-3 pour le maintien d'une bonne santé 100 mg
AEP Source d'acide eicosapentaénoïque (AEP) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé 100 mg
ADH Source d'acide docosahexaénoïque (ADH) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé 100 mg
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir la santé cognitive
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir les fonctions cérébrales
150 mg
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir lu fonctionnement des yeux
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir la santé oculaire
200 mg
ADP Source d'acide docosapentaénoïque (ADP) pour le maintien d'une bonne santé 100 mg
AEP + ADH
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir la/une santé cardiovasculaire/du cœur (normale)
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir une/les fonction(s) cardiovasculaire(s)/du cœur (normale(s))
200 mg
  • Aide à soutenir/maintenir les taux normaux de triglycérides/triacyglycérols (sanguins)
  • Aide à réduire (les taux de)/(les) triglycérides/triacyglycérols (sanguins)
1000 mg
AGL Source d'acide gamma-linoléique (AGL) 100 mg
AO Source d'acide oléique (AO) 100 mg

1Pour les produits proposant des allégations sur ce tableau, les activités doivent être indiquées pour les constituants d'acides gras correspondants.
2Références: DPSNSO 2023; EFSA 2010a; EFSA 2010b; EFSA 2009; Simopolous 2007; IOM 2006; IOM 2002; Simopolous 1999

Note : Les usages ci-dessus peuvent être combinés sur l'étiquette du produit (par ex., Aide à réduire les triglycérides et à maintenir la santé cardiovasculaire).

Mode(s) d'emploi

Énoncé non requis

Règles et restrictions pour les associations

Durée(s) d'utilisation

Énoncé non requis.

Mention(s) de risque

Précaution(s) et mise(s) en garde

Produits contenant de l'huile de chanvre, de l'huile d'argousier, de l'huile de krill, de l'huile de pépins de cassis et/ou de l'huile de calmar

Consultez un praticien de soins de santé/fournisseur de soins de santé/professionnel de la santé/docteur/médecin avant l'utilisation si vous êtes enceinte ou si vous allaitez.

Produits contenant de l'huile de poisson

Douleur causée par l'arthrite rhumatoïde

Consultez un praticien de soins de santé/fournisseur de soins de santé/professionnel de la santé/médecin/docteur si les symptômes s'aggravent.

Équilibre de l'humeur

Consultez un praticien de soins de santé/fournisseur de soins de santé/professionnel de la santé/docteur/médecin avant l'utilisation si vous avez des troubles psychologiques tels que l'anxiété ou la dépression.

Contre-indications(s)

Énoncé non requis.

Réaction(s) indésirable(s) connue(s)

Produits contenant de l'huile de krill et/ou de l'huile de calmar

Cessez l'utilisation si une hypersensibilité/allergie se manifeste (SC 2017).

Ingrédients non médicinaux

Doivent être choisis parmi ceux de la version actuelle de la Base de données des ingrédients des produits de santé naturels (BDIPSN) et respecter les restrictions mentionnées dans cette base de données.

Conditions d'entreposage

Doivent être établies conformément aux exigences décrites dans Règlement sur les produits de santé naturels.

Produits contenant de l'huile de Schizochytrium, de l'huile de caméline, de l'huile de chanvre, de l'huile de foie de morue, de l'huile de poisson, de l'huile d'argousier, de l'huile de krill, de l'huile de lin, de l'huile de pépins de cassis, de l'huile de chia, de l'huile de phoque et/ou de l'huile de calmar sauf les produits encapsulés

Réfrigérer après l'ouverture (Wille et Gonus 1989).

Tous les produits (information pour l'industrie; pas pour l'étiquetage)

À être emballé dans un contenant hermétique, dans un endroit frais et à l'abri de la lumière (Ph.Eur. 2023; USP-NF 2023).

Spécifications

Pour l'huile de poisson provenant des espèces de Gadidae

Pour les huiles de poisson incluant des espèces de Gadidae comme matière d'origine, le contenu en vitamine A et D doit être testé afin d'assurer que les doses maximales quotidiennes rencontrent la monographie des Suppléments de multivitamines/minéraux pour chaque groupe d'âge.

Huile de chanvre

Les produits renfermant de l'huile de chanvre ne doivent pas contenir plus de 10 parties par million de delta-9-Tétrahydrocannabinol (THC), ou des phytocannabinoïdes qui ont été isolés ou concentrés. La détermination de la concentration de THC doit tenir compte du potentiel de conversion de l'acide delta-9-tétrahydrocannabinolique (THCA) en THC. Les dérivés du chanvre (par ex., huile de chanvre) doivent aussi être conformes au Règlement sur le chanvre industriel (RCI). Toutes les sources de chanvre relevant du RCI devraient appartenir à un cultivar approuvé, défini dans le RCI comme une variété de chanvre industriel figurant sur la Liste des cultivars approuvés, publiée par le gouvernement du Canada sur son site Web, avec ses modifications successives.

EXEMPLE D'INFO-PRODUIT :

Veuillez consulter la ligne directrice, Étiquetage des produits de santé naturels pour plus de détails.

Info-Produit

Références citées

  • Alamu OJ, Dehinbo O, Sulaiman AM. Production and testing of coconut oil biodiesel fuel and its blend. Leonardo Journal of Sciences. 2010;16:95-104.
  • BP 2023: British Pharmacopoeia 2023. London (GB): The Stationary Office on behalf of the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA);2023.
  • Budavari, S., Ed. Evening primrose oil (monograph number 3953) and Linoleic acid (monograph number 5529). The Merck Index, 12th ed. Merck and Company, Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ. CD-ROM version 12:1, Chapman & Hall Electronic Publishing Division 1996.
  • Callaway J, Schwab U, Harvima I, Halonen P, Mykkanen O, Hyvonen P, Jarinen T. Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis. Journal of Dermatological Treatment 2005;16 :87-94.
  • DPSNSO 2023 : Direction des produits de santé naturels et sans ordonnance. Preuves internes sur les produits de santé naturels.
  • Dubois V, Breton S, Linder M, Fanni J, Parmentier M. Fatty acid profiles of 80 vegetable oils with regard to their nutritional potential. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 2007;109:710-732.
  • Edwin E, Garcia R, Jane SR, Coimbra, Javier T. Thermophysical Properties of Cotton, Canola, Sunflower and Soybean Oils as a Function of Temperature. International Journal of Food Properties 2013;16(7):1620-1629.
  • EFSA 2009. European Food Safety Authority. Scientific Opinion: Scientific opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to EPA, DHA, DPA and maintenance of normal blood pressure (ID 502), maintenance of normal HDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 515), maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides (ID 517), maintenance of normal LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 528, 698) and maintenance of joints (ID 503, 505, 507, 511, 518, 524, 526, 535, 537) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Panel of Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). EFSA Journal 2009;7(9): 1263. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : http ://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/1263.pdf
  • EFSA 2010a. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides (ID 533, 691, 3150), protection of blood lipids from oxidative damage (ID 630), contribution to the maintenance or achievement of a normal body weight (ID 629), brain, eye and nerve development (ID 627, 689, 704, 742, 3148, 3151), maintenance of normal brain function (ID 565, 626, 631, 689, 690, 704, 742, 3148, 3151), maintenance of normal vision (ID 627, 632, 743, 3149) and maintenance of normal spermatozoa motility (ID 628) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). EFSA Journal 2010; 8(10) :1734. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/1734.pdf.
  • EFSA 2010b. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and maintenance of normal cardiac function (ID 504, 506, 516, 527, 538, 703, 1128, 1317, 1324, 1325), maintenance of normal blood glucose concentrations (ID 566), maintenance of normal blood pressure (ID 506, 516, 703, 1317, 1324), maintenance of normal blood HDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 506), maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides (ID 506, 527, 538, 1317, 1324, 1325), maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 527, 538, 1317, 1325, 4689), protection of the skin from photo-oxidative (UV-induced) damage (ID 530), improved absorption of EPA and DHA (ID 522, 523), contribution to the normal function of the immune system by decreasing the levels of eicosanoids, arachidonic acid-derived mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines (ID 520, 2914), and “immunomodulating agent” (4690) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). EFSA Journal 2010; 8(10) :1796. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : http ://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/1796.pdf.
  • EFSA 2012: European Food Safety Authority. Scientific Opinion: Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). EFSA Journal 2012;10(7) :2815. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : http ://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/2815.pdf.
  • Firestone, D, editor. Physical and chemical characteristics of oils, fats, and waxes, 3rd edition. Urbana (IL): American Oil Chemists' Society 2013.
  • Fitzpatrick KC. Invitational Consultation on Fatty Acids. Winnipeg (MB): Nutritech Consulting; 2005.
  • Food Chemicals Codex. Eighth edition. Rockville (MD): The United States Pharmacopeial Convention; 2023.
  • Hoffmann D. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Rochester (VT): Healing Arts Press; 2003.
  • IOM 2006: Institute of Medicine. Otten JJ, Pitzi Hellwig J, Meyers LD, editors. Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements. Washington (DC): National Academies Press; 2006.
  • IOM 2002: Panel on Macronutrients, Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber, Subcommittee on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients, Subcommittee on Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington (DC): The National Academies Press; 2002.
  • ITIS 2023: Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Taxon Based on Biological Information System. Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility, Government of Canada. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : http ://www.cbif.gc.ca/acp/eng/itis/search
  • Karvonen HM, Aro A, Tapola NS, Salminen I, Uusitupa MIJ, Sarkkinen ES. Effect of α- linolenic acid-rich Camelina sativa oil on serum fatty acid composition and serum lipids in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Metabolism 2002;51(10): 1253-1260.
  • Kyte R.M. Technological studies on the processing of sea lions. Commercial fisheries review 1956;18 (6).
  • Lee H-Y, Haque A.S.M. T, Kim S-B, Lee T-B, Chun B-S. Effect of reaction parameters on conversion of krill (Euphausia superba) oil by immobilized lipase ethanolysis. Jounral of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 2014;20(3):1097-1102.
  • Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier RB. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with blackcurrant seed oil. British Journal of Rheumatology 1994;33:847-852.
  • Linnamaa P, Savolainen J, Koulu L, Tuomasjukka S, Kallio H, Yang B, Vahlberg T, Tahvonen R. Blackcurrant seed oil for prevention of atopic dermatitis in newborns: a randomized, double- blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clinical and Experimental Allergy: Journal of the British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2010;40:1247-1255.
  • Manisha K, Sharma P.C. Nutritional and antimicrobial property of seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.) seed oil. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 2011;70:1033-1036.
  • Moovendhan M, Kavisri M, Vairamani S, Shanmugam A. Valorization of cephalopod liver viscera for oil production: chemical characteristics, nutritional profile and pharmacological activities. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery 2021.
  • Petcu AC, Pleşu V, Berbente Corneliu. Estimation methods for thermophysical properties of camelina sativa crude oil. University Polithenica of Bucharest Scientific Bulletin 2016;78(1): 59-70.
  • Ph.Eur. 2023: European Pharmacopoeia. 11th edition. Strasbourg (FR): Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and HealthCare of the Council of Europe (EDQM); 2023.
  • Purnamayati L, Sumardianto, Romadhon, Dewi EN. Physical Blending Characteristics of Fish Oil and Sesame Oil. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019;246:012054.
  • Quinn JF, Raman R, Thomas RG, Yurko-Mauro K, Nelson EB, Van Dyck C, Galvin JE, Emond J, Jack CR, Weiner M, Shinto L, Aisen PS. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Medical Association 2010;304(17): 1903-1911.
  • SC 2017 : Santé Canada. Crustacés et mollusques. Allergènes alimentaires prioritaires. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/documents/services/food-nutrition/reports-publications/food-safety/2017-crustaceans-crustaces-fra.pdf
  • Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids and athletics. Current Sports Medicine Reports 2007; 6(4):230-236.
  • Simopoulos AP. Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999;70(3):560S-569S.
  • Subrahmanyam MSR, Vedanayagam S, Venkatacharyulu P. Estimation of the harma constant and thermoacoustic properties of vegetables oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 1994;71(8): 901-905
  • Turck D, Castenmiller J, De Henauw S, Hirsch-Ernst K.I, Kearney J, Knutsen H.K, Maciuk A, Mangelsdorf I., McArdle H.J, Naska A, Pelaez C, Pentieva K., Siani A., Thies F., Tsabouri S. and Vinceti M. Safety of oil from Schizochytrium limacinum (strain FCC-3204) for use in food supplements as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. European Food Safety Authority Journal. 2021;19 (1): 6345.
  • US FDA 2019. FDA Announces new qualified health claims for EPA and DHA Omega-3 consumption and the risk of hypertension and coronary disease; and associated link: FDA Response to Petition for Qualified Health Claim that EPA and DHA Omega-3 Consumption May Reduce Risk of Hypertension. [Accessed 2024 February 22]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-announces-new-qualified-health-claims-epa-and-dha-omega-3-consumption-and-risk-hypertension-and
  • USP-NF 2023: United States Pharmacopeia and the National Formulary. Rockville (MD): The United States Pharmacopeial Convention; https://online.uspnf.com.
  • Uzunova M., Perifanova-Nemska M., Petkova Zh., Minkova St., Nikolova Kr. Physiochemical characteristics of chia seed oil from Peru. Bulgarian Chemical Communications 2019;51:217-220.
  • Wille HJ, Gonus P. Preparation of fish oil for dietary applications. In: Galli C, Simopolous AP, editors. Dietary ω-3 and ω-6 Fatty Acids. Biological Effects and Nutritional Essentiality. New York (NY): Plenum Press; 1989.
  • Yang B, Kalimo KO, Matilla LM, Kallio SE, Katajisto JK, Peltola OJ, Kallio HP. Effects of dietary supplementation with sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) seed and pulp oils in atopic dermatitis. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 1999;10:622-630
  • Yurko-Mauro K, McCarthy D, Rom D, Nelson EB, Ryan AS, Blackwell A, Salem N, Stedman M. Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline, Alzheimer's and Dementia 2010;6:1-9.
  • Zhang Z-S, Wang L-J, Li D, Li S-J, Özkan N. Characteristics of flaxseed oil from two different flax plants. International Journal of Food Properties 2011;14:1286-1296.
  • Zielinska A, Nowak I. Abundance of active ingredients in sea-buckthorn oil. Lipids in Health and Disease 2017;16(1):95.

Références consultées

  • Ackman RG. The absorption of fish oils and concentrates. Lipids 1992;27(11):858-862.
  • Aggett PJ, Antoine JM, Asp NG, Bellisle F, Contor L, Cummings JH, Howlett J, Müller DJ, Persin C, Pijls LT, Rechkemmer G, Tuijtelaars S, Verhagen H. PASSCLAIM: consensus on criteria. European Journal of Nutrition 2005;44(Suppl 1):i5-i30.
  • Agostini C, Massetto N, Biasucci G, Rottoli A, Bonvissuto M, Bruzzese MG, Giovannini M, Riva E. Effects of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on fatty acid status and visual function in treated children with hyperphenylalaninemia. Journal of Pediatrics 2000; 137(4):504-509.
  • Ahmed AA, Holub BJ. Alteration and recovery of bleeding times, platelet aggregation and fatty acid composition of individual phospholipids in platelets of human subjects receiving a supplement of cod liver oil. Lipids 1984;19(8):617-624.
  • Angerer P, Kothny W, Störk S, von Schacky C. Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on progression of atherosclerosis in carotid arteries. Cardiovascular Research 2002; 54(1):183-190.
  • Annuzzi G, Rivellese A, Capaldo B, Di Marino L, Iovine C, Marotta G, Riccardi G. A controlled study on the effects of n-3 fatty acids on lipid and glucose metabolism in non-insulin- dependent diabetic patients. Atherosclerosis 1991;87(1):65-73.
  • Appel LJ, Miller ER, Seidler AJ, Whelton PK. Does supplementation of diet with 'fish oil' reduce blood pressure? Archives of Internal Medicine 1993;153(12):1429-1438.
  • Bairati I, Roy L, Meyer F. Effects of a fish oil supplement on blood pressure and serum lipids in patients treated for coronary artery disease. Canadian Journal of Cardiology 1992;8(1):41-46.
  • Barnes J, Anderson LA, Philipson JD. Herbal Medicines, 3rd edition. London (GB): The Pharmaceutical Press; 2007.
  • Beblo S, Reinhardt H, Muntau AC, Mueller-Felber W, Roscher AA, Koletzko B. Fish oil supplementation improves visual evoked potentials in children with phenylketonuria. Neurology 2001;57(8):1488-1491.
  • Beblo S, Reinhardt H, Demmelmair H, Muntau AC, Koletzko B. Effects of fish oil supplementation on fatty acid status, coordination, and fine motor skills in children with phenylketonuria. Journal of Pediatrics 2007;150(5):479-484.
  • Bender NK, Kraynak MA, Chiquette E, Linn WD, Clark GM, Bussey HI. Effects of marine fish oils on the anticoagulation status of patients receiving chronic warfarin therapy. Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis 1998;5(3):257-261.
  • Berardi RR, DeSimone EM, Newton GD, Oszko MA, Popovich NG, Rollins CJ, Shimp LA, Tietze KJ, editors. Handbook of Nonprescription Drugs: An Interactive Approach to Self-Care, 13th edition. Washington (DC): American Pharmaceutical Association; 2002.
  • Berbert AA, Kondo CR, Almendra CL, Matsuo T, Dichi I. Supplementation of fish oil and olive oil in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Nutrition 2005;21(2):131-136.
  • Birberg-Thornberg U, Karlsson T, Gustafsson PA, Duchen K. Nutrition and theory of mind—the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the development of theory of mind. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2006;75(1):33-41.
  • Birch DG, Birch EE, Hoffman DR, Uauy RD. Retinal development in very-low-birth-weight infants fed diets differing in omega-3 fatty acids. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 1992;33(8):2365-2376.
  • Birch EE, Castaneda YS, Wheaton DH, Birch DG, Uauy RD, Hoffman DR. Visual maturation of term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty-acid supplemented or control formula for 12 mo. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81(4):871-879.
  • Birch EE, Hoffman DR, Castañeda YS, Fawcett SL, Birch DG, Uauy RD. A randomized controlled trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of formula in term infants after weaning at 6 wk of age. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002; 75(3):570-580.
  • Birch EE, Garfield S, Hoffman DR, Uauy R, Birch DG. A randomized controlled trial of early long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2000;42(3):174-181.
  • Blonk MC, Bilo HJ, Nauta JJ, Popp-Snijders C, Mulder C, Donker AJ. Dose-response effects of fish-oil supplementation in healthy volunteers. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990;52(1):120-127.
  • Bønaa KH, Bjerve KS, Nordøy A. Docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids in plasma phospholipids are divergently associated with high density lipoprotein in humans. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 1992;12(6):675-681.
  • Bonefeld-Jørgensen EC, Møller SM, Hansen JC. Modulation of atherosclerotic risk factors by seal oil: a preliminary assessment. International Journal of Circumpolar Health 2001;60(1):25- 33.
  • Bonnema SJ, Jespersen LT, Marving J, Gregersen G. Supplementation with olive oil rather than fish oil increases small arterial compliance in diabetic patients. Diabetes Nutrition and Metabolism 1995;8(2):81-87.
  • Boon H. Flax. In: Chandler F, editor. Herbs: Everyday Reference for Health Professionals. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Pharmacists Association and the Canadian Medical Association; 2000.
  • Bourre JM. Effects of nutrients (in food) on the structure and function of the nervous system: update on dietary requirements for brain. Part 2: macronutrients. Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging 2006;10(5):386-399.
  • Brady LM, Lovegrove SS, Lesauvage SV, Gower BA, Minihane AM, Williams CM, Lovegrove JA. Increased n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not attenuate the effects of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on insulin sensitivity or triacylglycerol reduction in Indian Asians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004;79(6):983-991.
  • Brinker F. Herb Contraindication and Drug Interactions, 3rd edition. Sandy (OR): Eclectic Medical Publications; 2001.
  • Buckley MS, Goff AD, Knapp WE. Fish oil interaction with warfarin. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2004;38(1):50-53.
  • Buckley R, Shewring B, Turner R, Yaqoob P, Minihane AM. Circulating triacylglycerol and apoE levels in response to EPA and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in adult human subjects. The British Journal of Nutrition 2004;92(3):477-483.
  • Burgess JR, Stevens L, Zhang W, Peck L. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 71(Suppl l):327S-30S.
  • Cairns JA, Gill J, Morton B, Roberts R, Gent M, Hirsh J, Holder D, Finnie K, Marquis JF, Naqvi S, Cohen E. Fish oils and low-molecular-weight heparin for the reduction of restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. The EMPAR Study. Circulation 1996; 94(7):1553-1560.
  • Calder PC. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;83(Suppl 6):1505S-1519S.
  • Calder PC. n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanisms explored. Clinical Science 2004;107(1):1-11.
  • Calder PC. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and immunity. Lipids 2001;36(9):1007- 1024.
  • Calò L, Bianconi L, Colivicchi F, Lamberti F, Loricchio ML, de Ruvo E, Meo A, Pandozi C, Staibano M, Santini M. N-3 fatty acids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery: a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2005;45(10):1723-1728.
  • Calon F, Lim GP, Yang F, Morihara T, Teter B, Ubeda O, Rostaing P, Triller A, Salem N Jr, Ashe KH, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. Docosahexaenoic acid protests from dendritic pathology in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Neuron 2004;43(5):596-599.
  • Carlson SE. Arachidonic acid status of human infants: influence of gestational age at birth and diets with very long chain n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. The Journal of Nutrition 1996;126(Suppl 4):1092S-1098S.
  • Carlson SE, Werkman SH, Peeples JM, Cooke RJ, Tolley EA. Arachidonic acid status correlates with first year growth in preterm infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1993; 90(3):1073-1077.
  • Carroll DN, Roth MT. Evidence for the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 fatty acids. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2002;36(12):1950-1956.
  • Cazzola R, Russo-Volpe S, Miles EA, Rees D, Banerjee T, Roynette CE, Wells SJ, Goua M, Wahle KW, Calder PC, Cestaro B. Age- and dose-dependent effects of an eicosapentaenoic acid- rich oil on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy male subjects. Atherosclerosis 2007;193(1):159-167.
  • Chee KM, Gong JX, Rees DM, Meydani M, Ausman L, Johnson J, Siguel EN, Schaefer EJ. Fatty acid content of marine oil capsules. Lipids 1990;25(9):523-528.
  • Cleary MA, Feillet F, White FJ, Vidailhet M, MacDonald A, Grimsley A, Maurin N, de Baulny HO, Rutherford PJ. Randomised controlled trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in phenylketonuria. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;60(7):915-920.
  • Cleland LG, French JK, Betts WH, Murphy GA, Elliot MJ. Clinical and biochemical effects of dietary fish oil supplements in rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Rheumatology 1988; 15(10):1471-1475.
  • Colter AL, Cutler C, Meckling KA. Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adolescents: a case-control study. Nutrition Journal 2008;7:8.
  • Conklin SM, Gianaros PJ, Brown SM, Yao JK, Hariri AR, Manuck SB, Muldoon MF. Long- chain omega-3 fatty acid intake is associated positively with corticolimbic gray matter volume in healthy adults. Neuroscience Letter 2007;421(3):209-212.
  • Connor WE, DeFrancesco CA, Connor SL. N-3 fatty acids from fish oil: Effects on plasma lipoproteins and hypertriglyceridemic patients. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1993;683:16-34.
  • Connor WE, Prince MJ, Ullmann D, Riddle M, Hatcher L, Smith FE, Wilson D. The hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in adult-onset diabetes without adverse glucose control. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 1993;683(1):337-340.
  • Conquer JA, Cheryk LA, Chan E, Gentry PA, Holub BJ. Effect of supplementation with dietary seal oil on selected cardiovascular risk factors and hemostatic variables in healthy male subjects. Thrombosis Research 1999;96(3):239-250.
  • Cunnane S, Drevon CA, Harris B, Sinclair A, Spector A. Recommendations for intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids in healthy adults. Devon (GB): International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids; 2004. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/recommendations-intake-polyunsaturated-fatty-acids-healthy-adults.
  • Dangour AD, Uauy R. N-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for optimal function during brain development and ageing. Asian Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;17(Suppl 1):185- 188.
  • De Groot RHM, Hornstra G, Jolles J. Exploratory study into the relation between plasma phospholipid fatty acid status and cognitive performance. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, Essential Fatty Acids 2007;76(3):165-172.
  • Deutch B, Jørgensen EB, Hansen JC. Menstrual discomfort in Danish women reduced by dietary supplements of omega-3 PUFA and B12 (fish oil or seal oil capsules). Nutrition Research 2000. 20(5):621-631.
  • Dokholyan RS, Albert CM, Appel LJ, Cook NR, Whelton PK, Hennekens CH. A trial of omega- 3 fatty acids for prevention of hypertension. The American Journal of Cardiology 2004; 93(8):1041-1043.
  • Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A, Beilin LJ, Taylor AL, Holt PG, Prescott SL. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal allergen-specific immune responses and clinical outcomes in infants at high risk of atopy: a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2003;112(6):1178-1184.
  • Dunstan JA, Roper J, Mitoulas L, Hartmann PE, Simmer K, Prescott SL. The effect of supplementation with fish oil during pregnancy on breast milk immunoglobulin A, soluble CD14, cytokine levels, and fatty acid composition. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2004;34(8):1237-1242.
  • EFSA 2011. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and contribution to normal cognitive function (ID 532) and maintenance of normal bone (ID 642, 697, 1552) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). EFSA Journal 2011;9(6):2224. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2224
  • Engeset D, Alsaker E, Lund E, Welch A, Khaw KT, Clavel-Chapelon F, Thiébaut A, Chajès V, Key TJ, Allen NE, Amiano P, Dorronsoro M, Tjønneland A, Stripp C, Peeters PH, van Gils CH, Chirlaque MD, Nagel G, Linseisen J, Ocké MC, Bueno-de-Mesquita1 HB, Sacerdote C, Tumino R, Ardanaz E, Sánchez MJ, Panico S, Palli D, Trichopoulou A, Kalapothaki V, Benetou V, Quirós JR, Agudo A, Overvad K, Bjerregaard L, Wirfält E, Schulz M, Boeing H, Slimani N, Riboli E. Fish consumption and breast cancer risk. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). International Journal of Cancer 2006;119(1):175-182.
  • Engler MM, Engler MB, Malloy MJ, Paul SM, Kulkarni KR, Mietus-Snyder ML. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid on lipoprotein subclasses in hyperlipidemic children (the EARLY study). American Journal of Cardiology 2005;95(7):869-871.
  • Eritsland J. Safety considerations of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;71(Suppl 1):197S-201S.
  • Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Seljeflot I, Høstmark AT. Long-term metabolic effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995;61(4):831-836.
  • Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Seljeflot I, Kierulf P. Long-term effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on haemostatic variables and bleeding episodes in patients with coronary artery disease. Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis 1995;6(1):17-22.
  • Eritsland J, Seljeflot I, Abdelnoor M, Arnesen H, Torjesen PA. Long-term effects of n-3 fatty acids on serum lipids and glycemic control. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 1994;54(4):273-280.
  • European Food Safety Authority. Scientific substantiation of a health claim related to Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Arachidonic Acid (ARA) and support of the neural development of the brain and eyes pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. The EFSA Journal 2008;794:1-11.
  • European Food Safety Authority. Scientific substantiation of a health claim related to α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid and growth and development of children pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. The EFSA Journal 2008;783:1-9.
  • Finnegan YE, Howarth D, Minihane AM, Kew S, Miller GJ, Calder PC, Williams CM. Plant and marine derived (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in moderately hyperlipidemic humans. The Journal of Nutrition 2003;133(7):2210-2213.
  • Fortin PR, Lew RA, Liang MH, Wright EA, Beckett LA, Chalmers TC, Sperling RI. Validation of a meta-analysis: the effects of fish oil in rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 1995;48(11):1379-1390.
  • Frais AT. Depression and the causal role of specific memory system degenerations: Link may be supported by reported therapeutic benefits of omega 3 fatty acids. Medical Hypothesis 2007; 69(1):67-69.
  • Frangou S, Lewis M, McCrone P. Efficacy of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid in bipolar depression: randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study. British Journal of Psychiatry 2006;188:46- 50.
  • Franzen D, Schannwell M, Oette K, Höpp HW. A prospective, randomized, and double-blind trial on the effect of fish oil on the incidence of restenosis following PTCA. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Diagnosis 1993;28(4):301-310.
  • Freese R, Mutanen N. Alpha-linolenic acid and marine long-chain n-3 fatty acids differ only slightly in their effects on hemostatic factors in healthy subjects. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;66(3):591-598.
  • Fregni F, Schachter SC, Pascual-Leone A. Review: Transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for epilepsy: Can it also improve depression and vice versa? Epilepsy and Behavior 2005; 7(2):182-189.
  • Freund-Levi Y, Eriksdotter-Jonhagen M, Cederholm T, Basun H, Faxen-Irving G, Garlind A, Vedin I, Vessby B, Wahlund LO, Palmblad J. ω-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: omegAD study. Archives of Neurology 2006;63(10):1402-1408.
  • Friedberg CE, Janssen MJ, Heine RJ, Grobbee DE. Fish oil and glycemic control in diabetes. A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 1998;21(4):494-500.
  • Fux M, Benjamin J, Nemets B. A placebo-controlled crossover trial of adjunctive EPA in OCD. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2004;38(3):323-325.
  • Gadoth N. On fish oil and omega-3 supplementation in children: The role of such supplementation on attention and cognitive dysfunction. Brain and Development 2008; 30(5):309-312.
  • Gapinski JP, VanRuiswyk JV, Heudebert GR, Schectman GS. Preventing restenosis with fish oils following coronary angioplasty: a meta-analysis. Archives of Internal Medicine 1993; 153(13):1595-1601.
  • Gouvernement du Canada 2023a. Loi sur le cannabis. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/fra/lois/C-24.5/
  • Gouvernement du Canada 2023b. Règlement sur le chanvre industriel. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/fra/reglements/DORS-2018-145/
  • Gouvernement du Canada 2023. Règlement sur les produits de santé naturels. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/fra/reglements/DORS-2003-196/?showtoc=&instrumentnumber=DORS-2003-196
  • Geelen A, Brouwer IA, Schouten EG, Maan AC, Katan MB, Zock PL.Effects of n-3 fatty acids from fish on premature ventricular complexes and heart rate in humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81(2):416-420.
  • Geleijnse JM, Giltay EJ, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Kok FJ. Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: metaregression analysis of randomized trials. Journal of Hypertension 2002; 20(8):1493-1499.
  • Geusens P, Wouters C, Nijs J, Jiang Y, Dequeker J. Long-term effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in active rheumatoid arthritis: a 12-month, double-blind, controlled study. Arthritis & Rheumatism 1994;37(6):824-829.
  • Goodnight SH, Harris WS, Connor WE. The effects of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on platelet composition and function in man: a prospective, controlled study. Blood 1981;58(5):880-885.
  • Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen JB, Nordøy A. Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;66(3):649-659.
  • Guivernau N, Meza N, Barja P, Roman O. Clinical and experimental study on the long-term effect of dietary gamma-linolenic acid on plasma lipids, platelet aggregation, thromboxane formation, and prostacyclin production. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 1994;51(5):311-316.
  • Haglund O, Luostarinen R, Wallin R, Wibell L, Saldeen T. The effects of fish oil on triglycerides, cholesterol, fibrinogen and malondialdehyde in humans supplemented with vitamin E. The Journal of Nutrition 1991;121(2):165-169.
  • Hakkarainen R, Partonen T, Haukka J, Virtamo J, Albanes D, Lonnqvist J. Food and nutrient intake in relation to mental well being. Nutritional Journal 2004;3:14.
  • Halldorsson TI, Meltzer HM, Thorsdottir I, Knudsen V, Olsen SF. Is high consumption of fatty fish during pregnancy a risk factor for fetal growth retardation? A study of 44,824 Danish pregnant women. American Journal of Epidemiology 2007;166(6):687-696.
  • Halliwell B, Chirico S. Lipid peroxidation: its mechanism, measurement, and significance. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993;57(Suppl 5):715S-725S.
  • Hamazaki T, Sawazaki S, Nagao Y, Kuwamori T, Yazawa K, Mizushima Y, Kobayashi M. Docosahexaenoic acid does not affect aggression of normal volunteers under nonstressful conditions. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Lipids 1998;33(7):663-667.
  • Hamazaki T, Sawazaki S, Itomura M, Asaoka E, Nagao Y, Nishimura N, Yazawa K, Kuwamori T, Kobayashi M. The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults: a placebo- controlled double-blind study. Journal Clinical Investigation 1996;97(4):1129-1134.
  • Harel Z, Biro FM, Kottenhahn RK, Rosenthal SL. Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of dysmenorrhea in adolescents. The American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1996;174(4):1335-1338.
  • Harris WS. International recommendations for consumption of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine 2007;8(Suppl 1):S50-S52.
  • Harrison N, Abhyankar B. The mechanism of action of omega-3 fatty acids in secondary prevention post-myocardial infarction. Current Medical Research and Opinion 2005;21(1):95- 100.
  • He K, Song Y, Daviglus ML, Liu K, Van Horn L, Dyer AR, Goldbourt U, Greenland P. Fish consumption and incidence of stroke: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Stroke 2004; 35(7):1538-1542.
  • Hendler SS, Rorvik D, editors. PDR for Nutritional Supplements, 1st edition. Montvale (NJ): Thomson PDR; 2001.
  • Hibbeln JR, Ferguson TA, Blasbalg TL. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiencies in neurodevelopment, aggression and autonomic dysregulation: opportunities for intervention. International Review of Psychiatry 2006;18(2):107-118.
  • Hjerkinn EM, Seljeflot I, Ellingsen I, Berstad P, Hjermann I, Sandvik L, Arnesen H. Influence of long-term intervention with dietary counselling, long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplements, or both on circulating markers of endothelial activation in men with long-standing hyperlipidemia. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81(3):583-589.
  • Hodge L, Salome CM, Hughes JM, Liu-Brennan D, Rimmer J, Allman M, Pang D, Armour C, Woolcock AJ. Effect of dietary intake of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on severity of asthma in children. European Respiratory Journal 1998;11(2):361-365.
  • Hodge W, Barnes D, Schachter HM, Pan Y, Lowcock EC, Zhang L, Sampson M, Morrison A, Tran K, Miguelez M, Lewin G. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Eye Health. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 117. AHRQ No. 05-E008-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005.
  • Hoffman DR, Locke KG, Wheaton DH, Fish GE, Spencer R, Birch DG. A randomized, placebo- controlled clinical trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. American Journal of Ophthalmology 2004;137(4):704-718.
  • Holguin F, Téllez-Rojo MM, Lazo M, Mannino D, Schwartz J, Hernández M, Romieu I. Cardiac autonomic changes associated with fish oil vs soy oil supplementation in the elderly. Chest 2005; 127(4):1102-1107.
  • Hornstra G. Essential fatty acids in mothers and their neonates. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;71(Suppl 5):1262S-1269S.
  • Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism and its modification in atopic eczema. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;71(Suppl 1):367S-372S.
  • Horrobin DF. Interactions between n-3 and n-6 essential fatty acids (EFAs) in the regulation of cardiovascular disorders and inflammation. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 1991;44(2):127-31.
  • Iacoviello L, Amore C, De Curtis A, Tacconi MT, de Gaetano G, Cerletti C, Donati MB. Modulation of fibrinolytic response to venous occlusion in humans by a combination of low- dose aspirin and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 1992;12(10):1191-1197.
  • Ikeda I, Yoshida H, Tomooka M, Yosef A, Imaizumi K, Tsuji H, Seto A. Effects of long-term feeding of marine oils with different positional distribution of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on lipid metabolism, eicosanoid production, and platelet aggregation in hypercholesterolemic rats. Lipids 1998;33(9):897-904.
  • Innis SM. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. The Journal of Nutrition 2007; 137(4):855-859.
  • Institute of Medicine (IOM). Committee on Nutrient Relationships in Seafood Selection to balance Benefits and Risks, Food and Nutrition Board, Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington (DC): National Academies Press; 2007.
  • Iso H, Rexrode KM, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. Intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids and risk of stroke in women. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 2001;285(3):304-312.
  • Johansen O, Brekke M, Seljeflot I, Abdelnoor M, Arnesen H. n-3 fatty acids do not prevent restenosis after coronary angioplasty: results from the CART study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1999;33(6):1619-1626.
  • Johnson EJ, Chung HY, Caldarella SM, Snodderly DM. The influence of supplemental lutein and docosahexaenoic acid on serum, lipoproteins, and macular pigmentation. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(5):1521-1529.
  • Kalmijn S, van Boxten MP, Ocke M, Verschuren WMM, Kromhout D, Launer LJ. Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age. Neurology 2004;62(2):275-280.
  • Kalmijn S, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and cognitive function in very old men. American Journal of Epidemiology 1997;145(1):33-41.
  • Kaul U, Sanghvi S, Bahl VK, Dev V, Wasir HS. Fish oil supplements for prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty. International Journal of Cardiology 1992;35(1):87-93.
  • Kaur G, Cameron-Smith D, Garg M, Sinclair AJ. Docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-3): a review of its biological effects. Progress in Lipid Research 2011;50(1):28-34.
  • Kelley DS, Siegel D, Vemuri M, Mackey BE. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves fasting and postprandial lipid profiles in hypertriglyceridemic men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;86(2):324-333.
  • Kernoff PBA, Willis AL, Stone KJ, Davies JA, McNicol GP. Antithrombotic potential of dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid in man. British Medical Journal 1977;2(6100):1441-1444.
  • Khan F, Elherik K, Bolton-Smith C, Barr R, Hill A, Murrie I, Belch JJ. The effects of dietary fatty acid supplementation on endothelial function and vascular tone in healthy subjects. Cardiovascular Research 2003;59(4):955-962.
  • Kidd PM. Omega-3 DHA and EPA for cognition, behavior, and mood: clinical findings and structural-functional synergies with cell membrane phospholipids. Alternative Medical Review 2007:12(3):207-227.
  • Kjeldsen-Kragh J, Lund JA, Riise T, Finnanger B, Haaland K, Finstad R, Mikkelsen K, Førre Ø. 1992. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and naproxen treatment in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 19(10):1531-1536.
  • Kotani S, Sakaguchi E, Warashina S, Matsukawa N, Ishikura Y, Kiso Y, Sakakibara M, Yoshimoto T, Guo J, Yamashima T. 2006. Dietary supplementation of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids improves cognitive dysfunction. Neuroscience Research 56(2):159-164.
  • Kremer JM, Bigauoette J, Michalek AV, Timchalk MA, Lininger L, Rynes RI, Huyck C, Zieminski J, Bartholomew LE. Effects of manipulation of dietary fatty acids on clinical manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis. The Lancet 1985;1(8422):184-187.
  • Kremer JM, Lawrence DA, Jubiz W, DiGiacomo R, Rynes R, Bartholomew LE, Sherman M. Dietary fish oil and olive oil supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: clinical and immunologic effects. Arthritis and Rheumatism 1990;33(6):810-819.
  • Kremer JM, Lawrence DA, Petrillo GF, Litts LL, Mullaly PM, Rynes RI, Stocker RP, Parhami N, Greenstein NS, Fuchs BR, Mathur A, Robinson DR, Sperling RI, Bigaouette J. Effects of high-dose fish oil on rheumatoid arthritis after stopping nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Arthritis & Rheumatism 1995;38(8):1107-1114.
  • Krokan HE, Bjerve KS, Mork E. The enteral bioavailability of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is as good from ethyl esters as from glyceryl esters in spite of lower hydrolytic rates by pancreatic lipase in vitro. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1993;1168(1):59- 67.
  • Kuhnt K, Degen C, Jaudszus A, Jahreis G. Searching for health beneficial n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in plant seeds. European Journal of Lipid Science & Technology 2012;114(2):153-160.
  • Kyrozis A, Psaltopoulou T, Stathopoulos P, Trichopoulos D, Vassilopoulos D, Trichopoulou A. Dietary lipids and geriatric depression scale score among elders: the EPIC-Greece cohort. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2009;43(8):763-769.
  • Laidlaw M and Holub B. Effects of supplementation with fish oil-derived n-3 fatty acids and gamma-linolenic acid on circulating plasma lipids and fatty acid profiles in women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;77(1):37-42.
  • Lau CS, McLaren M, Belch JJ. Effects of fish oil on plasma fibrinolysis in patients with mild rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 1995;13(1):87-90.
  • Lauritzen L, Kjaer TM, Fruekilde MB, Michaelsen KF, Frokiaer H. Fish oil supplementation of lactating mothers affects cytokine production in 2 ½-year-old children. Lipids 2005;40(7):669- 676.
  • Lawson LD, Hughes BG. Absorption of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oil triacylglycerols or fish oil ethyl esters co-ingested with a high-fat meal. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 1988;156(2):960-963.
  • Leaf A, Jorgensen MB, Jacobs AK, Cote G, Schoenfeld DA, Scheer J, Weiner BH, Slack JD, Kellett MA, Raizner AE, Weber PC, Mahrer PR, Rossouw JE. Do fish oils prevent coronary angioplasty? Circulation 1994;90(5):2248-2257.
  • Leigh-Firbank EC, Minihane AM, Leake DS, Wright JW, Murphy MC, Griffin BA, Williams CM. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oils: differential associations with lipid responses. The British Journal of Nutrition 2002;87(5):435-445.
  • Leng GC, Lee AJ, Fowkes FG, Jepson RG, Lowe GD, Skinner ER, Mowat BF. Randomized controlled trial of gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in peripheral arterial disease. Clinical Nutrition 1998;17(6):265-271.
  • Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier RB. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with gammalinolenic acid. Annals of Internal Medicine 1993;119(9):867-873.
  • Lewin GA, Schachter HM, Yuen D, Merchant P, Mamaladze V, Tsertsvadze A, Clifford T, Kourad K, Barnes D, Armour T, Yazdi F, MacNeil J, McGahern C, Senechal H, Fang M, Barrowman N, Sampson M, Morrison A, Elien D, Saint-Martin M, Sambasivan A, Lowcock E, Pan Y, Lemyre B. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Child and Maternal Health. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 118. AHRQ No. 05-E025-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005.
  • Li D, Sinclair A, Wilson A, Nakkote S, Kelly F, Abedin L, Mann N, Turner A. Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on thrombotic risk factors in vegetarian men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999;69(5):872-82.
  • Linday LA, Dolitsky JN, Shindledecker RD. Nutritional supplements as adjunctive therapy for children with chronic/recurrent sinusitis: pilot research. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 2004;68(6):785-793.
  • Llorente AM, Jensen CL, Voigt RG, Fraley JK, Berretta MC, Heird WC. Effect of maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on postpartum depression and information processing. American Journal Obstetrics and Gynecology 2003;188(5):1348-1353.
  • Logan AC. Review: omega-3 fatty acids and major depression: a primer for the mental health professional. Lipids in Health and Disease 2004;3:25.
  • Lorenz R, Spengler U, Fischer S, Duhm J, Weber PC. Platelet function, thromboxanes formation and blood pressure control during supplementation of the Western diet with cod liver oil. Circulation 1983;67(3):504-511.
  • Lovell CR, Burton JL, Horrobin DF. Treatment of atopic eczema with evening primrose oil [letter]. The Lancet 1981;317(8214):278.
  • MacLean CH, Issa AM, Newberry SJ, Mojica WA, Morton SC, Garland RH, Hilton LG, Traina SB, Shekelle PG. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cognitive Function with Aging, Dementia, and Neurological Diseases. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 114. AHRQ No. 05-E011-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005.
  • MacLean CH, Mojica WA, Morton SC, Pencharz J, Hasenfeld Garland R, Tu W, Newberry SJ, Jungvig LK, Grossman J, Khanna P, Rhodes S, Shekelle P. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Lipids and Glycemic Control in type II Diabetes and the Metabolic Syndrome and on Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Renal Disease, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, and Osteoporosis. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 89. AHRQ No. 04-E012-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2004.
  • MacLean CH, Newberry SJ, Mojica WA, Issa A, Khanna P, Lim YW, Morton SC, Suttorp M, Tu W, Hilton LG, Garland RH, Traina SB, Shekelle PG. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cancer. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 113. AHRQ No. 05-E010-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005.
  • Maes M, Christophe A, Delanghe J, Altamura C, Neels H, Meltzer HY. Lowered omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesterol esters of depressed patients. Psychiatry Research 1999;85(3):275-291.
  • Maes M, Mihaylova I, Kubera M, Bosmans E. Why fish oils may not always be adequate treatments for depression or other inflammatory illnesses: docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, induces a Th-1-like immune response. Neuro Endocrinology Letters 2007;28(6):875-880.
  • Maes M, Mihaylova I, Leunis JC. In chronic fatigue syndrome, the decreased levels of omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids are related to lowered serum zinc and defects in T cell activation. Neuro Endocrinology Letters 2005;26(6):745-751.
  • Maillard V, Bougnoux P, Ferrari P, Jourdan ML, Pinault M, Lavillonnière M, Body G, Le Floch O, Chajès V. N-3 and n-6 fatty acids in breast adipose tissue and relative risk of breast cancer in a case-control study in Tours, France. International Journal of Cancer 2002;98(1):78-83.
  • Makrides M. Commentary: outcomes for mothers and their babies: do n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and seafoods make a difference? Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2008;108(10):1622-1626.
  • Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Morse N, Kyte V, Jenkins K. Reduced levels of prostaglandin precursors in the blood of atopic patients: defective delta-6-desaturase function as a biochemical basis for atopy. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Medicine 1982;9(6):615-628.
  • Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Morse NL, Wright S, Burton JL. Essential fatty acids in the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. The British Journal of Dermatology 1984;110(6):643-648.
  • Mann NJ, O'Connell SL, Baldwin KM, Singh I, Meyer BJ. Effects of seal oil and tuna-fish oil on platelet parameters and plasma lipid levels in healthy subjects. Lipids 2010;45(8):669-81.
  • Marangell LB, Martinez JM, Zboyan HA, Chong H, Puryear LJ. Omega-3 fatty acids for the prevention of postpartum depression: negative data from a preliminary, open-label pilot study. Depression and Anxiety 2004;19(1):20-23.
  • Marangell LB, Martinez JM, Zboyan HA, Kertz B, Kim HF, Puryear LJ. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in the treatment of major depression. American Journal Psychiatry 2003;160(5):996-998.
  • Maresta A, Balduccelli M, Varani E, Marzilli M, Galli C, Heiman F, Lavezzari M, Stragliotto E, De Caterina R; ESPRIT Investigators. Prevention of postcoronary angioplasty restenosis by omega-3 fatty acids: main results of the Esapent for Prevention of Restenosis Italian Study (ESPRIT). American Heart Journal 2002;143(6):E5.
  • Martin RE, Carter EP, Flick GJ, Davis LM, editors. Marine & Freshwater Products Handbook. Lancaster (PA): Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.; 2000.
  • McCann JC, Ames BN. Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;82(2):281-295.
  • McFayden IJ, Forrest AP, Chetty U. Cyclical breast pain—some observations and the difficulties in treatment. The British Journal Clinical Practice 1992;46(3):161-164.
  • McGregor L, Smith AD, Sidey M, Belin J, Zilkha KJ, McGregor JL. Effects of dietary linoleic acid and gamma linolenic acid on platelets of patients with multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 1989;80(1):23-27.
  • McGuffin M, Hobbs C, Upton R, Goldberg A, editors. American Herbal Products Association's Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press.; 1997.
  • Meydani M, Natiello F, Goldin B, Free N, Woods M, Schaefer E, Blumberg JB, Gorbach SL. Effect of long-term fish oil supplementation on vitamin E status and lipid peroxidation in women. The Journal of Nutrition 1991;121(4):484-491.
  • Mickleborough TD, Ionescu AA, Rundell KW. Omega-3 fatty acids and airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2004; 10(6):1067-1075.
  • Mickleborough TD, Lindley MR, Ionescu AA, Fly AD. Protective effect of fish oil supplementation on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in asthma. Chest 2006;129(1):39-49.
  • Mihrshahi S, Peat JK, Webb K, Oddy W, Marks GB, Mellis CM. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid concentrations in plasma on symptoms of asthma at 18 months of age. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 2004;15(6):517-522.
  • Miles EA, Banerjee T, Calder PC. Self-reported health problems in young male subjects supplementing their diet with oils rich in eicosapentaenoic, gamma-linolenic and stearidonic acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 2006;75(1):57-60.
  • Miller LG. Herbal medicinals: selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herb interactions. Archives of Internal Medicine 1998;158(20):2200-2211.
  • Miller CC, Tang W, Ziboh VA, Fletcher MP. Dietary supplementation with ethyl ester concentrates of fish oil (n-3) and borage oil (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids induces epidermal generation of local putative anti-inflammatory metabolites. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1991;96(1):98-103.
  • Mills S, Bone K. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy. Toronto (ON): Churchill Livingstone;2000.
  • Montgomery C, Speake BK, Cameron A, Sattar N, Weaver LT. Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and fetal accretion. The British Journal of Nutrition 2003;90(1):135-140.
  • Moore CS, Bryant SP, Mishra GD, Krebs JD, Browning LM, Miller GJ, Jebb SA. Oily fish reduces plasma triacylglycerols: a primary prevention study in overweight men and women. Nutrition 2006;22(10):1012-1024.
  • Mori TA, Bao DQ, Burke V, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ. Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans. Hypertension 1999;34(2):253-260.
  • Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, Watts GF, O'Neal DN, Best JD, Beilin LJ. Purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids have differential effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins, LDL particle size, glucose, and insulin in mildly hyperlipidemic men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;71(5):1085-1094.
  • Morris MC, Sacks F, Rosner B. Regulation of blood pressure: does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Circulation 1993;8(2):523-533.
  • Morse NL, Clough PM. A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials of efamol evening primrose oil in atopic eczema. Where do we go from here in light of more recent discoveries? Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology 2006;7(6):24-503.
  • Morse PF, Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Stewart JC, Allen R, Littlewood S, Wright S, Burton J, Gould DJ, Holt PJ, Jansen CT, Mattila L, Meigel W, Dettke TH, Wexler D, Guenther L, Bordoni A, Patrizi A. Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled studies of the efficacy of epogam in the treatment of atopic eczema. Relationship between plasma essential fatty acid changes and clinical response. The British Journal of Dermatology 1989;121(1):75-90.
  • Mueller BA, Talbert RL, Tegeler CH, Prihoda TJ. The bleeding time effects of a single dose of aspirin in subjects receiving omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplementation. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1991;31(2):185-190.
  • Murphy MG, Wright V, Ackman RG, Horackova M. Diets enriched in menhaden fish oil, seal oil, or shark liver oil have distinct effects on the lipid and fatty-acid composition of guinea pig heart. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 1997;177(1-2):257-269.
  • Murphy MG, Wright V, Scott J, Timmins A, Ackman RG. Dietary menhaden, seal, and corn oils differentially affect lipid and ex vivo eicosanoid and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances generation in the guinea pig. Lipids 1999;34(2):115-124.
  • Nagakura T, Matsuda S, Shichijyo K, Sugimoto H, Hata K. Dietary supplementation with fish oil rich in ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with bronchial asthma. European Respiratory Journal 2000;16(5):861-865.
  • Nakamura K, Kariyazono H, Komokata T, Hamada N, Sakata R, Yamada K. Influence of preoperative administration of ω-3 fatty acid-enriched supplement on inflammatory and immune responses in patients undergoing major surgery for cancer. Nutrition 2005;21(6):639-645.
  • Nelson GJ, Schmidt PS, Bartolini GL, Kelley DS, Kyle D. The effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid on platelet function, platelet fatty acid composition, and blood coagulation in humans. Lipids 1997;32(11):1129-1136.
  • Nemets B, Osher Y, Belmaker RH. Omega-3 fatty acids and augmentation strategies in treating resistant depression. Essential Psychopharmacology 2004;6(1):59-64.
  • Nemets B, Stahl Z, Belmaker RH. Addition of omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2002;159(3):477-479.
  • Nettleton JA, Katz R. N-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in type 2 diabetes: a review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2005;105(3):428-440.
  • Nielsen GL, Faarvang KL, Thomsen BS, Teglbjærg KL, Jensen LT, Hansen TM, Lervang HH, Schmidt EB, Dyerberg J, Ernst E. The effects of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double blind trial. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 1992;22(10):687-691.
  • Noaghiul S, Hibbeln JR. Review: Cross-national comparisons of seafood consumption and rates of bipolar disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2003;160(12):2222-2227.
  • Nordoy A, Barstad L, Connor WE, Hatcher L. Absorption of the n-3 eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids as ethyl esters and triglycerides by humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991;53(5):1185-1190.
  • Nordström DC, Honkanen VE, Nasu Y, Antila E, Friman C, Konttinen YT. Alpha-linolenic acid in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A double-blind, placebo-controlled and randomized study: flaxseed vs. safflower seed. Rheumatology International 1995;14(6):231-234.
  • O'Connor GT, Malenka DJ, Olmstead EM. A meta-analysis of randomized trials of fish oil in prevention of restenosis following coronary angioplasty. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1992;8(3):186-192.
  • Ockerman P, Bachrack I, Glans S, Rassner S. Evening primrose oil as a treatment of premenstrual syndrome. Recent Advances in Clinical Nutrition 1986;2:405-404.
  • Olafsdottir AS, Magnusardottir AR, Thorgeirsdottir H, Hauksson A, Skuladottir GV, Steingrimsdottir L. Relationship between dietary intake of cod liver oil in early pregnancy and birthweight. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2005;112(4):424- 429.
  • Oliwiecki S, Burton J. Evening primrose oil and marine oil in the treatment of psoriasis. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 1994;19(2):127-129.
  • Oliwiecki S, Armstrong J, Burton J, Bradfield J. The effect of essential fatty acids on epidermal atrophy due to topical steroids. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 1993;18(4):326-328.
  • Olsen SF, Secher NJ. Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk factor for preterm delivery: prospective cohort study. British Medical Journal 2002;324(7335):447-450.
  • Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottir H, Staines A, Tuffnell D. A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1995;102(2):95-100.
  • Osher Y, Bersudsky U, Belmaker, RH. Omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid in bipolar depression: report of a small open-label study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2005;66(6):726-729.
  • Pan Y, Lemyre B. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Child and Maternal Health. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 118. AHRQ No. 05-E025-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality;2005.
  • Parker G G, Gibson NA, Brotchie H, Heruc G, Rees AM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D. Review: omega-3 fatty acids and mood disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006; 163(6):969-978.
  • Pashby NL, Mansel RE, Hughes LE, Hanslip J, Preece PE. A clinical trial of evening primrose oil in mastalgia. The British Journal of Surgery 1981;68:801.
  • Paus T, Zijdenbos A, Worsley K, Collins DL, Blumenthal J, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL, Evans AC. Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and adolescents: in vivo study. Science 1999;283(5409):1908-1911.
  • Pawlosky RJ, Bacher J, Salem N. Ethanol consumption alters electroretinograms and depletes neural tissues of docosahexaenoic acid in rhesus monkeys: nutritional consequences of a low n-3 fatty acid diet. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 2001;25(12):1758-1765.
  • Peat JK, Mihrshahi S, Kemp AS, Marks GB, Tovey ER, Webb K, Mellis CM, Leeder SR. Three- year outcomes of dietary fatty acid modification and house dust mite reduction in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2004;114(4):807-813.
  • Pedersen HS, Mulvad G, Seidelin KN, Malcom GT, Boudreau DA. N-3 fatty acids as a risk factor for haemorrhagic stroke. The Lancet 1999;353(9155):812-813.
  • Peet M. Eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia and depression: rationale and preliminary double-blind clinical trial results. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2003;69(6):477-485.
  • Picado C, Castillo JA, Schinca N, Pujades M, Ordinas A, Coronas A, Agusti-Vidal A. Effects of a fish oil enriched diet on aspirin intolerant asthmatic patients: a pilot study. Thorax 1988;43(2):93-97.
  • Puolakka J, Mäkäräinen L, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O. Biochemical and clinical effects of treating the premenstrual syndrome with prostaglandin sysnthesis precursors. The Journal of Reproductive Medicine 1985;30(3):149-153.
  • Puri BK. The safety of evening primrose oil in epilepsy. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2007;77:101-103.
  • Radack K, Deck C, Huster G. The comparative effects of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma fibrinogen levels: a controlled clinical trial in hypertriglyceridemic subjects. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1990; 9(4):352-357.
  • Raitt MH, Connor WE, Morris C, Kron J, Halperin B, Chugh SS, McClelland J, Cook J, MacMurdy K, Swenson R, Connor SL, Gerhard G, Kraemer DF, Oseran D, Marchant C, Calhoun D, Shnider R, McAnulty J. Fish oil supplementation and risk of ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation in patients with implantable defibrillators: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 2005;293(23):2884-2891.
  • Reddy BS. Omega-3 fatty acids in colorectal cancer prevention. International Journal of Cancer 2004;112(1):1-7.
  • Reis GJ, Silverman DI, Boucher TM, Sipperly ME, Horowitz GL, Sacks FM, Pasternak RC. Effects of two types of fish oil supplements on serum lipids and plasma phospholipids fatty acids in coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Cardiology 1990;15(66):1171-1175.
  • Richardson AJ. Clinical trials of fatty acid treatment in ADHD, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 2004;70(4):383-390.
  • Richardson AJ, Montgomery P. The Oxford-Durham study: a randomized, controlled trial of dietary supplementation with fatty acids in children with developmental coordination disorder. Pediatrics 2005;115(5):1360-1366.
  • Richardson AJ, Puri BK. A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 2002;26(2):233-239.
  • Richardson AJ, Puri BK. The potential role of fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2000;63(1-2):79-87.
  • Rose DP, Connolly JM. Omega-3 fatty acids as cancer chemopreventive agents. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 1999;83(3):217-244.
  • Rosenstein ED, Kushner LJ, Kramer N, Kazandjian G. Pilot study of dietary fatty acid supplementation in the treatment of adult periodontitis. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 2003;68(3):213-218.
  • Sagduyu K, Docucu ME, Eddy BA, Craigen G, Baldassano CF, Y1ldlz A. Omega-3 fatty acids decreased irritability of patients with bipolar disorder in an add-on, open label study. Nutrition Journal 2005;4:6.
  • Sagredos AN. [Fatty Acid Composition of Fish Oil Capsules]. Fett Wissenschaft Technologie 1991;93(5):184-191 [article in German].
  • Samieri C, Feart C, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Peres K, Auriacombe S, Peuchant E, Delcourt C, Barberger-Gateau P. Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and depressive symptomatology are independent predictors of dementia risk. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;88(3):714-721.
  • Sanders TA, Hinds A. The influence of a fish oil high in docosahexaenoic acid on plasma lipoprotein and vitamin E concentrations and haemostatic function in healthy male volunteers. The British Journal of Nutrition 1992;68(1):163-173.
  • Sanders TA, Lewis F, Slaughter S, Griffin BA, Griffin M, Davies I, Millward DJ, Cooper JA, Miller GJ. Effect of varying the ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids by increasing the dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid or both on fibrinogen and clotting factors VII and XII in persons aged 45-70 y: the OPTILIP Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;84(3)513-522.
  • Santé Canada 2018. Les produits de santé contenant du cannabis ou à utiliser avec du cannabis : Lignes directrices pour la Loi sur le cannabis, la Loi sur les aliments et drogues, et les règlements connexes. [Consulté le 29 juin 2021]. Disponible à : https://www.canada.ca/fr/sante-canada/services/medicaments-produits-sante/medicaments/demandes-presentations/lignes-directrices/lignes-directrices-pour-loi-cannabis-aliments-drogues-reglements-connexes/document.html
  • Santé Canada 2012. Information sur les aliments nouveaux - Huile de caméline. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://www.canada.ca/fr/sante-canada/services/aliments-nutrition/aliments-genetiquement-modifies-autres-aliments-nouveaux/produits-approuves/huile-cameline-information-aliments-nouveaux.html
  • Santé Canada 2009. Le Fichier canadien sur les éléments nutritifs. Ottawa (ON): Santé Canada. [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn- an/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/cnf_aboutus-aproposdenous_fcen-fra.php.
  • Saynor R, Gillott T. Changes in blood lipids and fibrinogen with a note on safety in a long term study on the effects of n-3 fatty acids in subjects receiving fish oil supplements and followed for seven years. Lipids 1992;27(7):533-538.
  • Schachter HM, Kourad K, Merali Z, Lumb A, Tran K, Miguelez M, Lewin G, Sampson M, Barrowman N, Senechal H, McGahern C, Zhang L, Morrison A, Shlik J, Pan Y, Lowcock EC, Gaboury I, Bradwejn J, Duffy A. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Mental Health. Summary, Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 116. AHRQ No. 05-E022-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005.
  • Schäfer L, Kragballe K. Supplementation with evening primrose oil in atopic dermatitis: effect on fatty acids in neutrophils and epidermis. Lipids 1991;26(7):557-560.
  • Schalin-Karrila M, Mattila L, Jansen CT, Uotila P. Evening primrose oil in the treatment of atopic eczema: effect on clinical status, plasma phospholipid fatty acids and circulating blood prostaglandins. The British Journal of Dermatology 1987;117(1):11-19.
  • Schmidt EB, Lervang HH, Varming K, Madsen P, Dyerberg J. Long-term supplementation with n-3 fatty acids, I: effect on blood lipids, haemostasis and blood pressure. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 1992;52(3):221-228.
  • Schubert R, Kitz R, Beermann C, Rose MA, Baer PC, Zielen S, Boehles H. Influence of low- dose polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation on the inflammatory response of healthy adults. Nutrition 2007;23(10):724-730.
  • Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, Foods Standard Agency, Department of Health. Advice on Fish Consumption: Benefits and Risks. London (GB): TSO (The Stationery Office). [Consulté le 7 mars 2023]. Disponible à : https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/fishreport200401.pdf.
  • Sharpe GR, Farr PM. Evening primrose oil and eczema. The Lancet 335(8690):667-668.
  • Shuster J. 1996. Black cohosh root? Chasteberry tree? Seizures! Hospital Pharmacy 1990;31(12):1553-1554.
  • Silverman DI, Ware JA, Sacks FM, Pasternak RC. Comparison of the absorption and effect of on platelet function of a single dose of n-3 fatty acids given as fish or fish oil. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991;53(5):1165-1170.
  • Silvers KM, Woolley CC, Hamilton FC, Watts PM, Watson RA. Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of fish oil in the treatment of depression. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2005;72(3):211-218.
  • Simmer K, Schulzke SM, Patole S. Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1 Art. No.:CD000375. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000375pub3; 2008.
  • Simons LA, Parfitt A, Simons J, Balasubramaniam S. Effects of an ethyl ester preparation of fish oils (Himega) on lipids and lipoproteins in hyperlipidaemia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 1990;20(5):689-694.
  • Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem N. Workshop on the essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1999;18(5):487-489.
  • Singh M. Essential fatty acids, DHA and human brain. Indian Journal of Pediatrics 2005;72(3):239-242.
  • Sinn N, Bryan J. Effect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHD. Journal of Development and Behavioural Pediatrics 2007;28(2):82-91.
  • Solfrizzi V, Colacicco AM, D'Introno A, Capurso C, Del Parigi A, Capurso SA, Argentieri G, Capurso A, Panza F. Dietary fatty acids intakes and rate of mild cognitive impairment. The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Experimental Gerontology 2006;41(6):619-627.
  • Stehr SN, Heller AR. Omega-3 fatty acid effects on biochemical indices following cancer surgery. Clinica Chimica Acta 2006; 373(1-2):1-8.
  • Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, Deck JL, Abate ML, Watkins BA, Lipp SR, Burgess JR. Essential fatty acid metabolism in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995;62(4):761-768.
  • Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, Abate ML, Kuczek T, Burgess JR. Omega-3 fatty acids in boys with behavior, learning and health problems. Physiology and Behaviour 1996;59(4-5):915-920.
  • Stevens L, Zhang W, Peck L, Kuczek T, Grevstad N, Mahon A, Zentall SS, Arnold LE, Burgess JR. EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors. Lipids 2003;38(10):1007-1021.
  • Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, Rueter S, Zboyan HA, Diamond E, Cress KK, Marangell LB. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 1999;56(5):407-412.
  • Stone KJ, Willis AL, Hart WM, Kirtland SJ, Kernoff PB, McNicol GP. The metabolism of dihomo-γ-linolenic acid in man. Lipids 1979;14(2):174-180.
  • Studer M, Briel M, Leimenstoll B, Glass TR, Bucher HC. Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review. Archives of Internal Medicine 2005;165(7):725-730.
  • Su KP, Huang S, Chiu C, Shen WW. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;13(4):267-271.
  • Sundrarjun T, Komindr S, Archararit N, Dahlan W, Puchaiwatananon O, Angthararak S, Udomsuppayakul U, Chuncharunee S. Effects of n-3 fatty acids on serum interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor-α, and soluble tumour necrosis factor receptor p55 in active rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of International Medical Research 2004;32(5):443-454.
  • Svensson M, Schmidt EB, Jørgensen KA, Christensen JH. N-3 fatty acids as secondary prevention against cardiovascular events in patients who undergo chronic hemodialysis: a randomized, placebo-controlled intervention trial. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2006;1(4):780-786.
  • SzajewskaH, Horvath A, Koletzko B. Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of women with low-risk pregnancies on pregnancy outcomes and growth measures at birth: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;83(6):1337-1344.
  • Takemura Y, Sakurai Y, Honjo S, Tokimatsu A, Gibo M, Hara T, Kusakari A, Kugai N. The relationship between fish intake and the prevalence of asthma: the Tokorozawa Childhood Asthma and Pollinosis Study. Preventive Medicine 2002;34(2):221-225.
  • Takezaki T, Inoue M, Kataoka H, Ikeda S, Yoshida M, Ohashi Y, Tajima K, Tominaga S. Diet and lung cancer risk from a 14-year population-based prospective study in Japan: with special reference to fish consumption. Nutrition and Cancer 2003;45(2):160-167.
  • Takwale A, Tan E, Agarwal S, Barclay G, Ahmed I, Hotchkiss K, Thompson JR, Chapman T, Berth-Jones J. Efficacy and tolerability of borage oil in adults and children with atopic eczema: randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, parallel group trial. British Medical Journal 2003;327(7428):1385.
  • Tanskanen A, Hibbeln JR, Tuomilehto J, Uutela A, Haukkala A, Viinamaki H, Lehtonen J, Vartiainen E. Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in the general population in Finland. Psychiatric Services 2001;52(4):529-531.
  • Terry PD, Terry JB, Rohan TE. Long-chain (n-3) fatty acid intake and risks of cancers of the breast and the prostate: recent epidemiological studies, biological mechanisms, and directions for future research. The Journal of Nutrition 2004;134(Suppl 12):3412S-3420S.
  • Theobald HE, Goodall AH, Sattar N, Talbot DC, Chowienczyk PJ, Sanders TA. Low-dose docosahexaenoic acid lowers diastolic blood pressure in middle-aged men and women. The Journal of Nutrition 2007;137(4):973-978.
  • Theodoratou E, McNeill G, Cetnarskyj R, Farrington SM, Tenesa A, Barnetson R, Porteous M, Dunlop M, Campbell H. Dietary fatty acids and colorectal cancer: a case-control study. American Journal of Epidemiology 2007;166(2):181-195.
  • Thies F, Nebe-von-Caron G, Powell JR, Yaqoob P, Newsholme EA, Calder PC. Dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged >55 y. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001;73(3):539-548.
  • Tsekos E, Reuter C, Stehle P, Boeden G. Perioperative administration of parenteral fish oil supplements in a routine clinical setting improves patient outcome after major abdominal surgery. Clinical Nutrition 2004;23(3):325-330.
  • Tulleken JE, Limburg PC, Muskiet FA, van Rijswijk MH. Vitamin E status during dietary fish oil supplementation in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 1990;33(9):1416-1419.
  • Tulleken JE, Limburg PC, van Rijswijk MH. Fish oil and plasma fibrinogen. British Medical Journal 1988;297(6648):615-616.
  • Turchini GM, NG WK, Tocher DR, editors. Fish oil replacement and alternative lipid sources in aquaculture feeds. Boca Raton (FL): Taylor and Francis Group; 2011
  • Uauy R, Hoffmn DR, Mena P, Llanos A, Birch EE. Term infant studies of DHA and ARA supplementation on neurodevelopment: results of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Pediatrics 2003;143(Suppl 4):S17-S25.
  • Vaddadi KS. The use of gamma-linolenic acid and linoleic acid to differentiate between temporal lobe epilepsy and schizophrenia. Prostaglandins and Medicine 1981;6(4):375-379.
  • Vaisman N, Kaysar N, Zaruk-Adasha Y, Pelled D, Brichon G, Zwingelstein G, Bodennec J. Correlation between changes in blood fatty acid composition and visual sustained attention performance in children with inattention: effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids containing phospholipids. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(5):1170-1180.
  • Valagussa F, Franzosi MG, Geraci E, Mininni N, Nicolosi GL, Santini M, Tavazzi L, Vecchio C. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. The Lancet 1999;354(9177):447-455.
  • Valk EE, Hornstra G. Relationship between vitamin E requirement and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in man: a review. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2000;70(2):31-42.
  • van de Rest O, Geleijnse JM, Kok FJ, van Staveren WA, Hoefnagels WH, Beekman AT, de Groot LC. Effect of fish-oil supplementation on mental well-being in older subjects: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;88(3):706-713.
  • Van der Tempel H, Tulleken JE, Limburg PC, Muskiet FA, van Rijswijk MH. Effects of fish oil supplementation in rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 1990;49(2):76-80.
  • van Gelder BM, Tijhuis M, Kalmijn S, Kromhout D. Fish consumption, n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: the Zutphen Elderly Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(4):1142-1147.
  • van Gool CJ, Zeegers MP, Thijs C. Oral essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis - a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. The British Journal of Dermatology 2004;150(4):728-740.
  • Veale D, Torley HI, Richards IM, O'Dowd A, Fitzsimons C, Belch JJ, Sturrock RD. A double- blind placebo controlled trial of Efamol® Marine on skin and joint symptoms of psoriatic arthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology 1994;33(10):954-958.
  • Velho S, Marques-Vidal P, Baptista F, Camilo ME. Dietary intake adequacy and cognitive function in free-living active elderly: a cross-sectional and short-term prospective study. Clinical Nutrition 2008;27(1)77-86.
  • Velzing-Aarts FV, van der Klis FR, van der Dijs FP, van Beusekom CM, Landman H, Capello JJ, Muskiet FA. Effect of three low-dose fish oil supplements, administered during pregnancy, on neonatal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status at birth. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2001;65(1):51-57.
  • Vericel E, Lagarde M, Mendy F, Courpron PH, Dechavanne M. Effects of gamma-linolenic acid intake on platelet functions in elderly people. Thrombosis Research 1986;42(4):499-509.
  • Vidgren HM, Ågren JJ, Schwab U, Rissanen T, Hänninen O, Uusitupa MI. Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into plasma lipid fractions, and erythrocyte membranes and platelets during dietary supplementation with fish, fish oil, and docosahexaenoic acid-rich oil among healthy young men. Lipids 1997;32(7):697-705.
  • Visioli F, Risé P, Barassi MC, Marangoni F, Galli C. Dietary intake of fish vs. formulations leads to higher plasma concentrations of n-3 fatty acids. Lipids 2003;38(4):415-418.
  • Vlaandingerbroek H, Hornstra G, de Koning TJ, Smeitink JA, Bakker HD, de Klerk HBC, Rubio-Gozalbo ME. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma and erythrocytes of children with inborn errors of amino acid metabolism. Molecular genetics and metabolism 2006;88(2):159-165.
  • Voigt RG, Llorente AM, Jensen CL, Fraley JK, Berretta MC, Heird WC. A randomized, double- blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of Pediatrics 2001;139(2):189-196.
  • von Schacky C, Fischer S, Weber PC. Long-term effects of dietary marine ω-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 1985;76(4):1626-1631.
  • von Schacky C, Weber PC. Metabolism and effects on platelet function of the purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in humans. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 1985;76(6):2446-2450.
  • Walker T, Singh PK, Wyatt KM, O'Brien PM. The effect of prostanoid precursors and inhibitors on platelet angiotensin II binding. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1999;19(1):56-58.
  • Wang W, Shinto L, Connor WE, Quinn JF. Nutritional biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease: the association between carotenoids, n-3 fatty acids, and dementia severity. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 2008;13(1):31-38.
  • Westenhoefer J, Bellisle F, Blundell JE, de Vries J, Edwards D, Kallus W, Milon H, Pannemans D, Tuijtelaars S, Tuorila H. PASSCLAIM - mental state and performance. European Journal of Nutrition 2004;43(Suppl 2):ii85-ii117.
  • Wetzig N. Mastalgia: a 3 year Australian study. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery 1994;64(5):321-329.
  • Whalley LJ, Fox HC, Wahle KW, Starr JM, Deary IJ. Cognitive aging, childhood intelligence, and the use of food supplements: possible involvement of n-3 fatty acids. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004;80(6):1650-1657.
  • Whelton SP, He J, Whelton PK, Muntner P. Meta-analysis of observational studies of fish intake and coronary heart disease. The American Journal of Cardiology 2004; 93(9):1119-1123.
  • Whitaker D, Cilliers J, de Beer C. Evening primrose (Epogam®) in the treatment of chronic hand dermatitis: disappointing therapeutic results. Dermatology 1996.;193(2):115-120.
  • Wiersema J, León B. World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press LLC.; 1999.
  • Williamson EM, Evans FJ, Wren RC. Potter's New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations. Saffron Walden (GB): C.W. Daniel Company Limited; 1988.
  • Wohl DA, Tien HC, Busby M, Cunningham C, Macintosh B, Napravnik S, Danan E, Donovan K, Hossenipour M, Simpson RJ Jr. Randomized study of the safety and efficacy of fish oil (omega-3 fatty acid) supplementation with dietary and exercise counselling for the treatment of antiretroviral therapy-associated hypertriglyceridemia. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2005; 41(10):1498-1504.
  • Wong KW. Clinical efficacy of n-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with asthma. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2005;105(1):98-105.
  • Woodman RJ, Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, Barden A, Watts GF, Beilin LJ. Effects of purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on platelet, fibrinolytic and vascular function in hypertensive type 2 diabetic patients. Atherosclerosis 2003;166(1):85-93.
  • Woodman RJ, Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, Watts GF, Beilin LJ. Effects of purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on glycemic control, blood pressure, and serum lipids in type 2 diabetic patients with treated hypertension. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;76(5):1007-1015.
  • Wright S, Burton JL. Oral evening primrose seed oil improves atopic eczema. The Lancet 1982;(8308):1120-1122.
  • Yehuda S, Rabinovich S, Mostofsky DI. Modulation of learning and neuronal membrane composition in the rat by essential fatty acid preparation: time-course analysis. Neurochemical Research 1998; 23(5):627-634.
  • Yoon S, Lee J, Lee S. The therapeutic effect of evening primrose oil in atopic dermatitis patients with dry scaly skin lesions is associated with the normalization of serum gamma-interferon levels. Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology 2002;15(1):20-25.
  • Yoshimoto-Furuie K, Yoshimoto K, Tanaka T, Saima S, Kikuchi Y, Shay J, Horrobin DF, Echizen H. Effects of oral supplementation with evening primrose oil for six weeks on plasma essential fatty acid and uremic skin symptoms in hemodialysis patients. Nephron 1999;81(2):151-159.
  • Yzebe D, Lievre M. Fish oils in the care of coronary heart disease patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology 2004;18(5):581-592.

Annexe I

Densité des huiles fixes
Huiles fixes Parties Densité
Huile de bourrache Graine 0,908 - 0,925 g/mL
Huile de lin bâtard Graine 0,918 - 0,927 g/mL
Hemp Seed Oil Graine 0,920 - 0,930 g/mL
Huile de canola Graine 0,917 - 0,923 g/mL*
Huile de carthame Graine 0,918 - 0,937 g/mL
Huile de noix de coco Albumen (graine d'angiosperme) 0,913 - 0,919 g/mL
Huile de foie de morue Foie 0,921 - 0,927 g/mL
Huile de graines de citrouille Graine 0,901 - 0,924 g/mL
Huile de poisson En entier 0,929 - 0,931 g/mL
Huile de tournesol Graine 0,919 - 0,920 g/mL
Huile de fruit d'argousier Fruit 0,913 - 0,919 g/mL
Huile de graines d'argousier Graine 0,913 - 0,919 g/mL
Huile de krill En entier 0,919 - 0,925 g/mL*
Huile de lin Graine 0,928 - 0,935 g/mL
Huile d'onagre Graine 0,918 - 0,930 g/mL
Huile d'olive Fruit 0,908 - 0,914 g/mL
Huile d'amandes douces Graine 0,913 - 0,919 g/mL*
Huile de pépins de cassis Graine 0,919 - 0,926 g/mL
Huile de graines de chia Graine 0,922 - 0,927 g/mL
HHuile de Schizochytrium (huile d'algue) En entier 0,944 - 0,950 g/mL
Huile de phoque Petit lard 0,921 - 0,927 g/mL*
Huile de calmar En entier 0,953 - 0,959 g/mL*
Huile de germe de blé Germe (graine) 0.922 - 0,937 g/mL
Huile de pépins de raisin Graine 0,921 - 0,924 g/mL

*Lorsqu'une valeur unique a été trouvée dans les références, une variation de +/- 0,003 g/mL a été appliquée pour permettre une variabilité potentielle. Au moins l'une des références suivantes a été utilisée pour appuyer les intervalles de densité : Moovendhan 2021; Turck et al. 2021; Purnamayati et al. 2019; Uzunova et al. 2019; Delgado-et al. 2018; Petcu et al. 2016; Lee et al. 2014; Edwin et al. 2013; Firestone 2013; Manisha et Sharma 2011; Zhang et al. 2011; Alamu et al. 2010; Budavari 1996; Subrahmanyam et al. 1994; Kyte R.M. 1956.